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Abstract: Memory is in the hippocampus, the center for learning. With increasing age, the hippocampus has fewer neuronal connections leading to weaker memory. 65% of adults 65+ suffer with memory. 1% progress onto serious impairments. Previous studies suggest age hinders memory, however, it’s not well understood how short-term memory assessment methods (i.e. in-person vs. online) varies across age. This study investigated whether age affected short-term memory in an in-person versus an online setting. This study gathered 10 individuals across three age groups, ages 12-15 (n=5), 42-52 (n=3), and 72-76 (n=2). To assess short-term memory, an in-person and online exam were conducted. The in-person exam was a matching game where 20 matching pairs were laid in front of participants. Participants had 20 seconds to memorize the card’s location, until flipped over. The participants had to find the most pairs in 30 seconds. The online test analyzed working memory through remembering numbers. The 12-15 age group had an average of 3.7 cards remembered on the in-person exam, compared to averages of 2.1 and 2.7 cards from the middle and older groups, respectively. The 42-52 age group had an average of 100.3 on the online exam compared to averages of 94.6 and 66.5 points from the younger and older groups, respectively. These findings suggest younger people have better visual memory, but middle-aged people have better working memory. This data could lead to a better understanding of neurological conditions across all ages such as Dementia.

References

1. Arey, R. N., & Murphy, C. T. (2017). Conserved regulators of cognitive aging: From worms to humans. Behavioral Brain Research, 322, 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2016.06.035

2. Chen, Z., Zhang, Y., Yu, Y., Che, Y., Jin, L., Li, Y., Li, Q., Li, T., Dai, H., & Yao, J. (2021). Corrigendum to “write once read many times resistance switching memory based on all inorganic perovskite CSPBBR3 quantum dots.” Optical Materials, 112, 110756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2020.110756

3. Hendrickx, J. O., De Moudt, S., Callus, E., De Deyn, P. P., Van Dam, D., & De Meyer, G. R. Y. (2022). Age-related cognitive decline in spatial learning and memory of C57BL/6J MICE. Behavioral Brain Research, 418, 113649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113649

4. How, C. M., Lin, T.-A., & Liao, V. H.-C. (2021). Early-life chronic di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exposure worsens age-related long-term associative memory decline associated with insulin/IGF-1 signaling and CRH-1/CREB in Caenorhabditis elegans. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 417, 126044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126044

5. Javaid, H., Manor, R., Kumarnsit, E., & Chatpun, S. (2021). Decision tree in working memory tasks effectively characterizes EEG signals in healthy aging adults. IRBM. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irbm.2021.12.001

6. Kingo, O. S., Sonne, T., & Krøjgaard, P. (2022). Predicting explicit memory for meaningful cartoons from visual paired comparison in infants and toddlers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 215, 105316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105316

7. Roodenrys, S., Miller, L. M., & Josifovski, N. (2022). Phonemic interference in short-term memory contributes to forgetting but is not due to overwriting. Journal of Memory and Language, 122, 104301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2021.104301

8. Schworer, E. K., Voth, K., Hoffman, E. K., & Esbensen, A. J. (2022). Short-term memory outcome measures: Psychometric Evaluation and performance in youth with down syndrome. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 120, 104147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2021.104147

9. Serra, F. T., Cardoso, F. dos, Petraconi, N., dos Santos, J. C., Araujo, B. H., Arida, R. M., & Gomes da Silva, S. (2021). Resistance exercise improves learning and memory and modulates hippocampal METABOLOMIC profile in aged rats. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3951406

10. Wong, L.-W., Wang, Z., Ang, S. R., & Sajikumar, S. (2022). Fading memories in aging and neurodegeneration: Is P75 neurotrophin receptor a culprit? Aging Research Reviews, 75, 101567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2022.101567 

Abstract: Emergency shelters are essential for meeting basic needs and upholding the dignity of displaced populations following catastrophic events. Utilizing sustainable materials and efficient construction methods adapted to local contexts is also important in creating safe and dignified living environments. 

Millions of people in Southeast Asia face displacement due to natural disasters and political conflicts. Two innovative approaches to refugee housing in Southeast Asia are the Hex House developed by Architects for Society and bamboo structures designed by Agora Architects. By examining the strengths and limitations of each approach, key considerations for future shelter development in the region become apparent. The Hex House, developed by Architects for Society, represents a groundbreaking solution by rapidly deploying dwellings with a focus on cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and resilience. Its modular design allows for easy on-site transportation and assembly, promoting self-reliance and community integration. In Indonesia, where natural disasters are frequent, the Hex House shelter emerges as a promising solution, meeting essential criteria for post-disaster housing and offering hope for recovery and rebuilding. Similarly, Agora Architects addresses the need for temporary housing solutions for refugees arriving from the Burmese border by designing timber and bamboo huts. These low-cost and easy-to-assemble residences provide immediate relief to refugees while aligning with sustainability goals through the use of recycled materials. Overall, Agora Architects can effectively apply innovative approaches to not only meet the urgent housing needs of refugees but also contribute to sustainable architectural practices and community resilience in the Southeast Asian region using local materials.

Keywords: Emergency shelters, sustainability, displaced populations, refugee relief, structural design, sustainable material

References

1. Azril, A., Awaluddin, I., Irwansyah, M., & Idris, Y. (2022). Temporary residential design analysis type of hex house for disaster survival in Indonesia. International Journal of Social Science, Educational, Economics, Agriculture Research and Technology (IJSET), 2, 947-956. https://doi.org/10.54443/ijset.v2i1.104

2. Bingaman, M. (2023, June 20). Housing NOW: Revolutionizing Affordable Housing Solutions by Using Bamboo. Solve.com. https://solve.mit.edu/articles/housing-now-revolutionizing-affordable-housing-solutions-by-using-bamboo

3. Emergency shelter solutions and standards. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://emergency.unhcr.org/emergency-assistance/shelter-camp-and-settlement/shelter-and-housing/emergency-shelter-solutions-and-standards

4. Frearson, A. (2014, October 1). Teak and bamboo structures accommodate Burmese refugees in a Thai village. Dezeen. https://www.dezeen.com/2014/10/01/mae-tao-dormitories-thailand-agora-architects-temporary-accommodation-burmese-refugees-bamboo/

5. Geleff, J. (n.d.). Infrastructure in flight: 8 architectural designs imagined for migrant and refugee populations. Architizer. Retrieved from https://architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/architecture-for-refugees/

6. McKnight, J. (2016, April 14). Architects for Society designs low-cost hexagonal shelters for refugees. Dezeen. https://www.dezeen.com/2016/04/14/architects-for-society-low-cost-hexagonal-shelter-housing-refugees-crisis-humanitarian-architecture/

    

    

Abstract: 

Glioblastoma is an aggressive brain cancer with high resistance to conventional therapies, killing 200,000 worldwide every year. Aneuploidy, the disbalance of chromosomal counts, is considered a significant development agent, being characterized in 90% of solid tumors and commonly regulated by the BUB1 and SMC1A genes. Understanding the biological pathways that drive tumor development and resistance becomes paramount in developing effective treatments. Thus, the following study investigated the genetic suppression of BUB1 and SMC1A in astrocytes to determine if aneuploidy could be induced. Human brain tissue samples of both healthy and patients with glioblastoma obtained underwent fluorescence-activated cell sorting for astrocyte isolation. To investigate aneuploid patterns, the study employed single-cell whole-genome sequencing, interphase Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH), and RNAscope to quantify chromosomal copy number alterations and aneuploidy frequencies. Additionally, in-vitro cell culturing experiments involving lentivirus-induced knockdown of BUB1 and SMC1A genes provided insights into gene expression changes, affirming the creation of an aneuploidic environment in astrocytes. The study identified large aneuploid frequencies in glioblastoma inflicted brain samples and significant knockdown of BUB1 and SMC1A (p<0.05), creating an pro-aneuploidic environment that can further be observed to identify the senescence associated secretory phenotype. Altogether, the study provides validation of significant gene knockdown and the establishment of a framework to explore potential therapeutic strategies for aggressive brain cancers like glioblastoma.

References

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(London, England), 42(11), 1083–1111. https://doi.org/10.1002/cac2.12361

Abstract: 

In this experiment  working with Chromium and Eisenia fetida studying the health and behaviors of Eisenia fetida and how Chromium will affect their behaviors when exposed to Chromium. Other researchers that have done similar research showed that their Eisenia fetida have died because of being exposed to too much Chromium or in other experiments they did not have an outcome because the Eisenia fetida was not exposed to enough Chromium. The Eisenia fetida will be exposed to Chromium for about 2 weeks. The worms  will be monitored. The habitat of the Eisenia fetida is moist soil, although some Eisenia fetida actually prefer mud, such as the mud that is found along the shores of lakes or swamps. Eisenia fetida can be found in the soil of backyards as well as near bodies of fresh and saltwater.  When the  Eisenia Fetida arrive  there will be an enclosure for them to be in. Earthworms eat soil. Their nutrition comes from things in soil, such as decaying roots and leaves. The entire surface of a worm's body absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Moisture Eisenia Fetida moves  by squeezing muscles around their water- filled bodies. The Earthworms  will lose weight  when being exposed to Chromium. They will also shrink and the regeneration process for the earthworms will slow down. This shows how Chromium does have an effect on Eisenia fetida  and can cause the worms to have different effects.

Keywords: Eisenia fetida, Earthworms, Sublethal doses, Hexavalent chromium

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I. Introduction

Current estimates reveal that approximately 1.2 billion people reside in areas susceptible to flooding. However, due to human-inflicted changes to the environment, it is predicted that within the next 30 years, this number will increase by at least 400 million. (Campbell et al, 2019; Deria et al, 2020; Rezende et al, 2020) Despite the prevailing belief that the effects of flooding are diminutive, catastrophic destruction is possible, especially when victims belong to vulnerable populations (i.e. the elderly, the sick, the uneducated, immigrants, etc). (Becker et al, 2015) Aside from physical damage, severe flooding often prevents individuals from securing the bare necessities- water, food, shelter, and medical attention- leading to health crises and social segregation. (Flores et al, 2020) Following Hurricane Sandy, these adverse effects devastated communities on the East Coast, namely those in New York City and Long Island. (Martins et al, 2019) To mitigate complications during recuperation, researchers proposed updating strategies and policies (i.e. Flood Risk Management Policy) to take into account factors such as social capital and economic vulnerability. (Chakraborty et al, 2020) Doing so may ensure that all communities have equal access to ample resources and services, regardless of demographic composition. Therefore, this study investigated the role of community support, as opposed to socioeconomic status, in the vulnerability and resiliency of New York residents (NYC and Long Island) to flooding from Hurricane Sandy.

Aside from providing support, a strong community is imperative for circulating potentially life-saving information, such as emergency protocol, which is particularly beneficial in low-income areas. (Clay et al, 2016; Martins et al, 2019) Any social connection can be valuable to recovery as people repeatedly reported receiving the majority of their information from peers (more so than new outlets/media), especially in urban areas where news spreads quickest. (Becker et al, 2015; Fujimi & Fujimura, 2020; Hamilton et al, 2020; Morss et al, 2016; Wang et al, 2019) Further, nearly one-third of people surveyed in Sandy-affected areas shared that they primarily relied on “family, friends, and neighbors'' or coworkers for assistance. (Clay et al, 2016) Because human interaction is such a pivotal part of survival, the connectedness of a community may be a feasible option for measuring resiliency. 

Similar to community support, an individual’s involvement in politics is indicative of his/her vulnerability and resilience. Those who follow politicians are more likely to be engaged in social media where national agencies and political figures can share the most recent information and warnings. (Pourebrahim et al, 2019) Consequently, these individuals are better informed about proper protocol as well as government-funded programs that could help them recover from any damage. (Bukvic et al, 2018) There is strong evidence to support a positive relationship between individuals’ level of preparedness and political activity. (Martins et al, 2019)

Apart from being better informed about safety precautions, those who are more engaged in politics also tend to be more vigilant about the efforts of their local government. If local politicians are unjustly favoring a certain demographic and neglecting the needs of others, people who pay attention to politics are able to identify the problem and understand how it can be rectified. Furthermore, people who pay attention to the workings of their government are more inclined to address social issues. (Martins et al, 2019) For vulnerable families, this is relevant because an unsupportive, inept government is frequently the root of problems including forced evacuation/homelessness, poverty, inaccessible resources, etc. (Bukvic et al, 2018; Graham et al, 2016; Thistlethwaite et al, 2017) If political attentiveness could be quantified, policymakers and community organizations would be able to ascertain which populations are less educated about flooding preparation/reconstruction and which populations can assist the former.

II. Data and Methodology

Survey Dissemination

The online survey was first disseminated through email and social media (i.e., Facebook). The survey sample consisted of adults (at least 18 years old) living in the five boroughs of New York City and two counties of Long Island, which were highly affected areas on the East Coast. Prior to completing the survey, participants were required to complete an informed consent form. After the initial distribution of surveys, participants were primarily recruited by snowball sampling. That is, participants were encouraged to invite their acquaintances and family to respond to the survey. Between July 17, 2020, and August 7, 2020, 74 responses were collected.

Data Analysis 

Of the 74 responses, results from three surveys were excluded from the analysis. This accounted for blank responses (1), as well as responses from outside of the region of interest (2). Data from the remaining 71 surveys were transferred to spreadsheets on Microsoft Excel. Univariate data (composed of answers to primarily demographic questions) was assessed, though the study intended to concentrate on bivariate relationships. While these relationships had limited correlations, the similar means and standard deviation suggested that none were significant. Nonetheless, graphs and tables were developed to present the information from the survey.

III. Results and Discussion

Civic Infrastructure

Civic infrastructure, which describes the strength and unity of a community, is a crucial indicator of an individual’s preparedness and resiliency to natural disasters. Based on the results of this survey, there were no significant results between the amount of social capital and other tested factors. However, several relationships had limited correlations including that between community support and physical damage. The severity of physical damage was assessed by ratings of property destruction and street flooding. Counterintuitively, individuals receiving the most assistance from their community (5 on the Likert scale 1-5) reported more extreme results. (Fig. 2) Over half of respondents who rated their community “very helpful” (5), encountered street flooding while just over a quarter of respondents who rated their community “not helpful” communicated the same problem. Moreover, among those with the worst reported damage (5) to their property, the participants with the weakest civic infrastructure were not represented. (Fig. 2) These results can be attributed to two possibilities. For one, many people are more responsive to tangible damage rather than warnings, regardless of the source of information. Seeing the destruction of property firsthand may prompt members of a community to intervene and help one another, as undergoing a traumatic event can serve as a connection between neighbors. Alternatively, a community may have been supportive both prior to and following the intense flooding. However, many towns, despite extensive preparations and an abundance of services, are susceptible to damage due to being located in an unfavorable area such as on a waterfront.

Financial Influence and Future Improvements

Until recently, socioeconomic status was regarded as the most accepted measure of limitations to preparation and recovery. However, Figure 4 demonstrates that the distribution of preparation methods for Hurricane Sandy is comparable regardless of income. While financial status may not have regulated how participants plan to minimize damage, it did influence which services the participants preferred. Namely, individuals with lower incomes appeared to favor local programs. Furthermore, these same participants had a stronger opinion about the topic than those making more than $275,000, as only 12.9% declined to answer as opposed to 23.1% among the latter group. Wealthier respondents may favor government programs over local alternatives because damage to their property is more significant. (Figure 4) 80% of participants earning greater than $275,000 yearly on average described the flooding as more extreme (total slightly more extreme and significantly more extreme) than they had anticipated. Additionally, zero members of this demographic reported significantly less extreme flooding than expected. Meanwhile, only about 54.8% of individuals with an average salary of less than or equal to $150,000 recounted having more extreme damage. (Figure 5) Therefore, the theory that affluent families experience harsher damage due to the luxurious nature of their property may hold. However, because of a plethora of resources at hand including insurance, larger budgets for reconstruction, and government assistance, recovery from such traumatic events is possible. This may demonstrate that community support and economic strength are related such that the lack of one can be compensated for by the other.

IV. Conclusion and Future Research

The objective of this study was to identify which factors are the best indicators of preparedness, vulnerability, and resiliency. There was no significant distinction between the influence of financial wellbeing versus community support on enhancing preparation, limiting vulnerability, or benefiting resilience to flooding. Therefore, the hypothesis that a stronger civic infrastructure is more conducive to better preparation and an easier recovery was not supported. Rather, it appeared that possessing wealth and community support were equally essential, and the lack of one can be compensated for by the other. Because of this, participants with a higher income often reported weaker civic infrastructure. Likewise, participants with lower incomes held their communities in higher regard. Both wealthier individuals and individuals with more helpful neighbors cited slightly more extensive damage than their peers; however, this relationship was not significant.

Consistently, the participants in the study acknowledged that the damage resulting from flooding during Sandy was worse than anticipated. Despite this, the vast majority refused to modify their preparation methods to accommodate what was learned in their experiences with Sandy. This may be due to the infrequency of flooding and tropical cyclones in the area. Since participants had the same amount of exposure to these extreme weather events, regardless of their background, reactions to the damage were similarly moderate. Further, volunteers were not apt to anticipate a tropical cyclone with the same caliber of severity in the future explaining their lackadaisical, passive responses. These results demonstrated the need for access to better education and resources in areas where personal flooding precautions are not a primary concern. 

Given more time, a larger sample size could have been obtained, allowing for a better representation of all demographics in New York City and Long Island. Additionally, to account for initial reactions to flooding, as opposed to reliance on distant memories, the survey could have been redistributed following a tropical cyclone of similar severity in the area. Results can also be compared to the experiences of participants residing in flooding-prone areas, such as Texas or Louisiana, where factors including socioeconomic status have a greater, well-established effect on survival. 

As the population continues to increase, engendering changes to the environment, severe flooding is likely to become more frequent in countries throughout the world. Identifying the recurring characteristics of those who constitute vulnerable populations will enable more individuals to receive the education, services, and support necessary to prepare for and recover from flooding. Importantly, the ability to recover from trauma and misfortune is not limited to exclusively natural disasters. Recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic and its residual issues, including unemployment and exacerbated mental illness, will require resiliency. Fortunately, further research can inform changes in policies, resource distribution, and communication, allowing for obstacles ranging from flooding to illness to be managed without causing poverty, homelessness, irreparable damage, permanent health issues, and other problems associated with poor resiliency.

References

1. Becker, J. S., Taylor, H. L., Doody, B. J., Wright, K. C., Gruntfest, E., & Webber, D. (2015). A Review of People's Behavior in and around Floodwater. Weather, Climate, and Society, 7(4), 321-332. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-14-00030.1
2. Bukvic, A., Zhu, H., Lavoie, R., & Becker, A. (2018). The role of proximity to waterfront in residents' relocation decision-making post-Hurricane Sandy. Ocean & Coastal Management, 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.002
3. Campbell, K. A., Laurien, F., Czajkowski, J., Keating, A., Hochrainer-Stigler, S., & Montgomery, M. (2019). First insights from the Flood Resilience Measurement Tool: A large-scale community flood resilience analysis. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 40, 101257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101257
4. Chakraborty, L., Rus, H., Henstra, D., Thistlethwaite, J., & Scott, D. (2020). A place-based socioeconomic status index: Measuring social vulnerability to flood hazards in the context of environmental justice. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 43, 101394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101394
5. Clay, P. M., Colburn, L. L., & Seara, T. (2016). Social bonds and recovery: An analysis of Hurricane Sandy in the first year after landfall. Marine Policy, 74, 334-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.049
6. Deria, A., Ghannad, P., & Lee, Y.-C. (2020). Evaluating implications of flood vulnerability factors with respect to income levels for building long-term disaster resilience of low-income communities. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 48, 101608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101608
7. Flores, A. B., Collins, T. W., Grineski, S. E., & Chakraborty, J. (2020). Social vulnerability to Hurricane Harvey: Unmet needs and adverse event experiences in Greater Houston, Texas. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101521
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9. Gibbens, S. (2019, February). Hurricane Sandy, explained. In National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/reference/hurricane-sandy/#close
10. Graham, L., Debucquoy, W., & Anguelovski, I. (2016). The influence of urban development dynamics on community resilience practice in New York City after Superstorm Sandy: Experiences from the Lower East Side and the Rockaways. Global Environment Change, 40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.07.001
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Abstract: 

In this experiment  working with Chromium and Eisenia fetida studying the health and behaviors of Eisenia fetida and how Chromium will affect their behaviors when exposed to Chromium. Other researchers that have done similar research showed that their Eisenia fetida have died because of being exposed to too much Chromium or in other experiments they did not have an outcome because the Eisenia fetida was not exposed to enough Chromium. The Eisenia fetida will be exposed to Chromium for about 2 weeks. The worms  will be monitored. The habitat of the Eisenia fetida is moist soil, although some Eisenia fetida actually prefer mud, such as the mud that is found along the shores of lakes or swamps. Eisenia fetida can be found in the soil of backyards as well as near bodies of fresh and saltwater.  When the  Eisenia Fetida arrive  there will be an enclosure for them to be in. Earthworms eat soil. Their nutrition comes from things in soil, such as decaying roots and leaves. The entire surface of a worm's body absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Moisture Eisenia Fetida moves  by squeezing muscles around their water- filled bodies. The Earthworms  will lose weight  when being exposed to Chromium. They will also shrink and the regeneration process for the earthworms will slow down. This shows how Chromium does have an effect on Eisenia fetida  and can cause the worms to have different effects.

Keywords: Eisenia fetida, Earthworms, Sublethal doses, Hexavalent chromium

References

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4. Di Palma, L., Gueye, M.T., Petrucci, E., 2015. Hexavalent chromium reduction in contaminated soil : a comparison
   between ferrous sulfate and nanoscale zero-valent iron. J. Hazard Mater. 70–76.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.07.058.

5. Dong, H., Deng, J., Xie, Y., Zhang, C., Jiang, Z., Cheng, Y., Hou, K., Zeng, G., 2017.Stabilization of nanoscale
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Abstract: This paper sought to analyze the portrayal of eating
disorders in four works of Young Adult fiction. Previous research
suggests that the media—primarily magazines, television, and
film—have negatively and inaccurately depicted disordered eating.
For instance, characters in the situational comedy “Starved” were
often belittled by medical professionals for their eating disorders.
Such poor portrayals deliver incongruent messages to
impressionable audiences; perpetuated stereotypes may even
encourage some to mimic these behaviors. However, a gap in the
literature reveals itself, as no study has been conducted to assess
these portrayals through fiction. Therefore, using literature
analyses, key components of characterization, plot & setting,
diction & tone, relationships, and themes/messages were analyzed
in each novel. The true obsessive nature of eating disorders was
revealed, and authors often portrayed the protagonists to be wholly
consumed by their eating disorder. Additionally, the relationships
the characters maintained—whether they be familial, platonic, or
romantic—were pivotal to the development of their illnesses.

Keywords: Eating disorder, illness, medical professionals, media, behaviors affected by the disorder

References

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n_in_the_Media

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Abstract: 

Coronavirus disease -19 (COVID-19) has gained widespread interest in the field of mathematical epidemiology in order to inform the public on basic statistics surrounding COVID-19. However, the age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs), which adjust age and population discrepancies between different regions by comparing a subpopulation to a standard population, have not been shown publicly. Usually, COVID-19 ASMRs have not been calculated due to the lengthy process required to calculate them; however, ASMRs for COVID-19 have occasionally been calculated, but their effectiveness have been hindered due to the use of a hand-written formula and graphical manual methods. My study involved the development of a deep learning algorithm to calculate ASMR and to instantly graph the ASMR of a subpopulation versus the crude mortality rate of the standard population. This algorithm was used to compare the ASMRs for COVID-19 in American states to the crude mortality rate of the standard population, America. In this study, the algorithm shows efficiency with a consistent runtime of time≤5seconds, within 95% confidence interval error bars among trials. ASMRs show statistically significant differences in expected COVID-19 deaths among most populations. There is at least 95% confidence (p≤0.05) that differences in ASMR are independent of age and population distributions. These findings suggest that there are more factors than just age discrepancy that affect COVID-19 mortality rates.

Keywords: COVID-19, Age-Standardization, Mortality Rate, Algorithm, Deep Learning

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Abstract: Social isolation which is often associated with loneliness can have serious health effects on individuals of all ages.  Conversely, social support from different members of one's community which extends beyond family and even school can prevent loneliness and long term depression.  Departing from the more traditional therapeutic methods, the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model outlines measures that can be implemented not only in schools but also within the community at large to ensure healthier emotional development of lonely and often vulnerable teenagers.  To this end, incorporating the use of dogs for therapy also can effectively prevent and relieve stress caused by social isolation, and perhaps even facilitate new meaningful relationships.  Moreover, studies suggest that adolescents can benefit in the long term from these positive social interactions helping them to become more resilient, confident, and healthy adults.

Keywords:  loneliness, social isolation, resilience, whole school, whole community, whole child, mindfulness, cognitive behavioral therapy, social support, community dogs, mental health

I. Introduction

Throughout the recent pandemic, loneliness and social isolation have negatively impacted adolescents’ mental health as many classes went online, virtually eliminating socializing time that would normally occur with friends in school.  In other circumstances, unfortunate and unavoidable situations causing separation from family members or close friends can also increase one’s feeling of loneliness.  While a common belief may exist that having a large social network is the best way to overcome feelings of isolation, the poor quality of existing relationships can often be the main determinant of one’s loneliness.  Therefore, finding and developing intimate relationships with old or new acquaintances are crucial to one's well-being.  

Unlike traditional coping methods where each individual is taught different types of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (CBT), the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model promotes the collaboration of all members within the local community to prevent health debilitating loneliness through social support.  This paper will explore an innovative approach to community support including not just people but also social animals like dogs who can provide effective emotional comfort.  Adolescents, the elderly, and even people with disabilities can all benefit from interactions with dogs, and the positive effects of socializing with them can result in overall better long term physical and mental health.

As schools have slowly reopened with some normalcy this fall, a focus on implementing social support in school for students should be emphasized.  In order to create a collaborative and supportive environment for teenagers and children, schools and parents should take advantage of local organizations in the community for more resources including using dogs for social support therapy.

II. Defining Loneliness and Social Isolation

One group that is vulnerable to this chronic health issue are adolescents who may need close companionship along with emotional support even if they often avoid articulating this desire (London & Ingram, 2018).  When support is not accessible, these teenagers may resort to bullying, manipulation, or physical attacks at school to release their distress.  Moreover, serious social isolation can lead to mental illnesses, such as depression and eating disorders (Blossom & Apsche, 2013).  Some prevalent mental health impacts on adolescents caused by loneliness include chronic sadness, lower self-esteem, anxiety, and sleep disturbances.  These effects can also indirectly impact students’ performances in schools.  By contrast, one study has found that greater school connectedness in adolescents is directly related to higher levels of intrinsic motivation.  These students feel more compelled to perform well in school compared to those with less connections with their peers and teachers (London & Ingram, 2018).  Moreover, loneliness from social isolation can have profound impacts for individuals not merely during one’s adolescence years but also continue into adulthood and further lead to more chronic illnesses.

III. Social Support as an Alternative “Group” Therapy

In contrast with individual therapies like those mentioned above, social support refers to reassurance and comfort provided from one’s social network such as neighbors or other members of the community.  This type of group support diverges from focusing on an individual's limitations in social connections and provides them with more accessible assistance beyond that offered by a single therapist.  The meaningful application of social support may lessen depressive symptoms and negative emotions in individuals thereby promoting more active coping mechanisms which strengthen a person's resilience.  Indeed, low levels of social support is associated with high levels of morbidity and mortality (Ozbay et al., 2007).  The persistent interactions in a group setting also enhances one’s social functioning (Ezhumalai et al., 2018).  Hence, while in some cases private sessions with a therapist might be more successful, the benefit of enhancing social skills brought by group support is a crucial component in overcoming loneliness. 

IV. Social Support as an Alternative “Group” Therapy

A significant advantage of social support is highlighting the intrinsic value of the love and empathy received from community members and those with similar life experiences.  When analyzing the features of social support, two dimensions are introduced.  Structural dimension refers to the size and frequency of social interactions within one’s network.  In accordance with the concept of emotional loneliness, however, having a high number of relationships does not necessarily result in adequate support if the depth of those connections is shallow.  Functional dimension, on the other hand, focuses on emotional support received by individuals during times of difficulties.  While both dimensions are deemed important, research has found that functional dimensions prove to be more beneficial because the quality of relationships matters more than quantity to overcome feelings of loneliness and social isolation (Ozbay et al., 2007). 

V. Whole Community Approach Using Community Dogs for Therapy

One way of administering the whole community model is for communities to bring different members together, including therapy dogs, which have proven to be very effective in providing social support.  Socially isolated teens are often reluctant to express openly their needs and feelings to those with whom they are not close, yet teenagers do not generally exhibit similar reticence when interacting with dogs (Beetz et al., 2012).  In fact, in one research where stress-hormone cortisol levels of two groups of children were measured, one interacting with real dogs and the other with toy dogs, the results show that children who interacted with real dogs displayed a significant drop in cortisol levels compared to the second group that did not (Beetz et al., 2012).  This reduction in stress and increase in calmness would alleviate the negative psychological and physical effects that loneliness generates.  

In addition to these advantages, having dogs at home can provide more support in the long term.  While dogs themselves are loyal companions for humans, regular activities facilitated by them such as daily walking can also increase human interactions.  Dog owners are given more opportunities to engage in casual conversations specifically about topics they are familiar with like dogs (Powell et al., 2019).  While longer interaction times with dogs show more positive effects on humans, those who cannot own dogs in their households can still take advantage of this social support if easier access to dogs is integrated into the community (Powell et al., 2019).

VI. Conclusion

While traditional therapeutic methods have been useful in helping adolescents overcome experiencing chronic loneliness and its destructive effects, comprehensive measures introduced in the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model can potentially bolster a healthier development of lonely teenagers especially with the added benefit of communal support leading to a more promising and fulfilling adulthood.  Specifically, the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model outlines measures that can be implemented at school and more importantly at the community level to ensure a healthier, emotionally supportive environment for lonely teens.  To this end, incorporating the use of dogs for therapeutic purposes can effectively prevent and relieve stress caused by social isolation, and even cultivate enriching relationships.

References

1. Bass, C., van Nevel, J., & Swart, J. (2014). A comparison between dialectical behavior therapy, mode deactivation therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy in the treatment of adolescents. The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 9(2), 4+. https://www.academia.edu/29339917/A_comparison_between_dialectical_behavior_therapy_mode_deactivation_therapy_cognitive_behavioral_therapy_and_acceptance_and_commitment_therapy_in_the_treatment_of_adolescents
2. Beetz, A., Julius, H., Turner, D., & Kotrschal, K. (2012). Effects of social support by a dog on stress modulation in male children with insecure attachment. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 352. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00352
3. Blossom, P., & Apsche, J. (2013). Effects of loneliness on human development. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 7(4), 28-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0100963
4. Bouwman, T. E., Aartsen, M. J., van Tilburg, T. G., & Stevens, N. L. (2017). Does stimulating various coping strategies alleviate loneliness? Results from an online friendship enrichment program. Journal of social and personal relationships, 34(6), 793–811. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407516659158
5. CDC-Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, March 23). Whole school, whole COMMUNITY, whole CHILD (WSCC). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/wscc/index.htm. 
6. Community dogs in health and social care. Dogs for Good. (2020, December 22). https://www.dogsforgood.org/community-dog/community-dogs-adults/. 
7. Dong, X., Chang, E.-S., Wong, E., Simon, M. (2012). Perception and negative effect of loneliness in a Chicago Chinese population of older adults. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54, 151-159.  https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.archger.2011.04.022
8. Ezhumalai, S., Muralidhar, D., Dhanasekarapandian, R., & Nikketha, B. S. (2018). Group interventions. Indian journal of psychiatry, 60(Suppl 4), S514–S521. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_42_18
9. Khanlou, N., & Wray, R. (2014). A Whole Community Approach toward Child and Youth Resilience Promotion: A Review of Resilience Literature. Int J Ment Health Addiction 12, 64–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-013-9470-1
10. London, R., & Ingram, D. (2018). Social Isolation in Middle School. School Community Journal, 28(1), 107-127. http://www.schoolcommunitynetwork.org/SCJ
11. Ozbay, F., Johnson, D. C., Dimoulas, E., Morgan, C. A., Charney, D., & Southwick, S. (2007). Social support and resilience to stress: from neurobiology to clinical practice. Psychiatry, 4(5), 35–40. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2921311/
12. Powell, L., Edwards, K.M., McGreevy, P. et al. (2019). Companion dog acquisition and mental well-being: a community-based three-arm controlled study. BMC Public Health 19, 1428. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7770-5

Abstract: 

Metal corrosion in the US costs $2.5 trillion annually, which is equivalent to ~3.4% of the world’s gross domestic product. Implementing corrosion inhibition methods will result in global savings of 15-35% of that cost, or $375-875 billion. Kale extract could have the properties to minimize corrosion. This study will test the inhibition properties of kale extract on steel corrosion. To create the kale extract, kale leaves were dried in an incubator. They were ground into a fine powder and transferred into a flask, with the addition of 250 ml of water.  The mixture was heated until 50 ml evaporated,  then it was stored in a fridge for later use. The steel was cut into 6 sheets. 3 steel samples were kept for the experimental group and 3 steel samples were kept for the control group. The experimental group was submerged in the kale extract. All 6 steel pieces were submerged in hydrochloric acid. Mass and observations were taken daily. Over time the mass of the control group diminished faster than the experimental group. The corrosion rate was greater in the control group than the experimental group. These results demonstrate kale extract is an effective inhibitor for steel corrosion.

Keywords:  Brassica oleracea, steel corrosion, kale leaves

References

1. Afonso, Gara, Filippo Curti, and Atanas Mihov (2019). "Coming to Terms with Operational Risk," Federal Reserve Bank of New York Liberty Street Economics, January 7, https://libertystreeteconomics.newyorkfed.org/2019/01/coming-to-terms-with-operational-risk/.

2. Barrett, Devlin (2020). "Capital One fined $80 million for 2019 hack of 100 million credit card applications," August 6, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/capital-one-fined-2019-hack/2020/08/06/90c2c836-d7f3-11ea-aff6-220dd3a14741_story.html

3. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System November (2021). Financial Stability Report, pg. 3, https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/financial-stability-report-20211108.pdf.

4. Eisenbach, Thomas, Anna Kovner, and Michael Junho Lee (2021). "Cyber risk and the U.S. financial system: A pre-mortem analysis," Journal of Financial Economics, forthcoming.

5. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, and National Security Agency (2021). Joint statement, January 5, https://www.cisa.gov/news/2021/01/05/joint-statement-federal-bureau-investigation-fbi-cybersecurity-and-infrastructure.

6. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2018). "Framework for improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity," v. 1.1, April 16, https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/CSWP/NIST.CSWP.04162018.pdf.

7. M. Du, F. Li, G. Zheng, and V. Srikumar, “DeepLog: AnomalyDetection and Diagnosis from System Logs through DeepLearning,”ACM CCS`17, 2017

8.  K. Broughton, “Automated incident response: Respond to everyalert,”https://swimlane.com/blog/automated-incident-response-respond-every-alert/, 2017.

Abstract: COVID-19 has proven detrimental to the economy and changed the nature of social interactions. Governments at every level have increasingly required the use of face masks in public spaces. Evidence has shown that mandatory mask-wearing policies can effectively control the outbreak of the virus, protecting susceptible populations (i.e., individuals with preexisting conditions, individuals 65 and older). Many communities encourage mask-wearing to reduce the chance of viral transmission. 

While mandatory mask policies appear to effectively reduce transmission of the virus, their long-term psychological effects are not yet known. In this study, we examine the association between the implementation of face mask mandates and detrimental psychological and social consequences as well as other relevant aspects. Also, this study tries to figure out if the mandatory mask policies are advisable, and if so, how it benefits the public. 

I. Introduction

The COVID-19 epidemic has changed the way individuals behave and think. Governments were forced to respond and had a variety of approaches to implement mask mandates. What lessons were learned by comparing these methods, and how might this knowledge change our future policy decisions? Possible negative effects of mask-wearing have come to light, such as dizziness, headaches, and fainting.  Elderly individuals were particularly vulnerable, and this effect increases with time and intensity of activity. To further understand the effects of mask-wearing, it can be useful to understand the scope of the changes brought about by COVID-19.

If the social measures of Coronavirus prevention are suppression of personal contact through city blockades and bans on gatherings, personal measures have centered on mask-wearing and hand washing. Although it is believed that wearing a mask is instrumental in preventing the spread of the virus, making it compulsory is a burden that is difficult for society to bear. Mandatory wearing of masks requires penalties such as fines or denial of services that are time-consuming and difficult to enforce. This use of public power limits the freedom of individual citizens. That is why eastern and western countries introduced mask mandates only after COVID-19 infection rates had progressed for extended periods of time. Local governments in a few countries introduced mandates in May 2020, but it was not until October 2020 that the mask mandates were implemented on a national scale.

Figure 1. States that implemented preventative mask mandates saw significantly lower rates of infection. (Parshley & Zhou, 2020)

Figure 2. Mask mandates moderate the rate of infection.

In some countries, it is compulsory to wear a mask while using public transportation. In the subway, even momentarily removing their masks may get them reported and fined.  Notices are prominently displayed and announcements about wearing masks are broadcast on the train. If you do not wear a mask while riding the bus, the bus driver will refuse to let you board. 

II. Mask Policy and Backlash

When masks became compulsory in European countries like Sweden, citizens' reluctance to wear them created a policy dilemma. In August 2020, protesters against wearing masks demonstrated in major European cities. Unlike Western countries, citizens in Eastern countries were not as resistant to masks, likely due to their past experience with the SARS virus and issues with air quality due to industrial and business activities. While Western governments were concerned with citizen resistance to the perceived loss of autonomy, Eastern governments had to focus on avoiding major economic losses.  In order to enforce these mandates, however, local governments must frequently monitor compliance, and impose fines on business owners and citizens who violate the mask mandate, incurring great costs. Moreover, in Korea, the explosive increase in demand for masks in the early stages of the epidemic resulted in masks becoming more scarce. This, in turn, caused the price of masks to skyrocket. 

During the crisis, governments were often reluctant to discuss mask mandates, and the mere mention of it was likely to cause panic.  They had little choice but to trust citizens to voluntarily comply. However, once it was assumed that the mask shortage had been resolved, the mask mandate policy was open for discussion. As the domestic supply of masks stabilized, governments began to enforce mask mandates.  

Figure 2. Weekly death rates (The Economist, 2020)

The United States consistently lacked federal leadership and clarity on its mask mandate. America’s standard pandemic response plan (which includes “data surveillance, testing, tracing the contacts of people carrying a contagious virus, hospital preparedness, distribution of medical supplies from a federal stockpile and federal guidance to state leaders and the public”) requires federal leadership to effectively activate. Unfortunately, the pandemic came at a time when federal leadership was weak, making it exceedingly difficult to implement this existing template to control the virus.  These left individual states are unsupported in combating the virus. 

Messaging from the executive branch became a source of contradiction and partisanship. President Trump frequently “contradicted his own public health advisers,” retweeting conspiracy theories such as the idea that masks do more harm than good.  In turn, measures known to prevent the spread of the disease became politicized. 

In comparing the U.S., Sweden, Canada, and Taiwan, certain trends become apparent (as shown in the graph on the right). These countries’ differed significantly in terms of timing, government messaging, enforcement of safety restrictions, and more. For example, the U.S. has historically struggled with sustaining advanced public health laws and programs due to a lack of enforcement and funds. As such, the U.S. was already structurally at a disadvantage to manage COVID-19.  In contrast, countries like Taiwan (which had systems set up to handle a pandemic due to the country’s SARS scare) were better prepared to handle a pandemic in the first place (Wang et al., 2020).  Beyond issues with the systems, the U.S. also had significant leadership issues, with President Trump actively contradicting science and public health experts throughout the pandemic.  

While Canada enforced travel restrictions and safety measures as early as Taiwan, the country’s unclear messaging on mask usage, limited testing, and use of outdated technologies for health communications hindered its containment of COVID-19 (Detsky, & Bogoch, 2020). Similar to the U.S., Canada initially had inconsistent messaging, but it was able to lower infection rates by implementing relatively strict social distancing measures, correcting its initial stance and advocating mask usage, and reinforcing practices recommended by public health experts (Detsky & Bogoch, 2020). 

III. Enforcement of Mask-wearing Policies: Quantitative Observation

Understanding the effectiveness of mask-wearing would also help countries make strategic plans to fully reopen their respective economies. With the alarming emergence and spread of several COVID-19 variants (DeSimone, 2021), it is crucial to establish the level of effectiveness of protective measures, namely mask-wearing, by elucidating whether countries that strictly enforce mask-wearing policies have had a lower number of COVID-19 cases than countries that have had less strict policies. Although data suggests that mask-wearing reduces COVID-19 transmission, there is less data on whether masking policies are effective across different countries, a problem that this study aimed to address. In addition, there is a substantial lack of data on how the degree of mask enforcement affects compliance and therefore COVID-19 transmission rates, an issue that this study aims to elucidate. It is hypothesized that countries and subnational jurisdictions that strictly enforce mask-wearing in public and shared spaces will have lower infection rates. 

A total of 14 locations globally were arbitrarily selected using a random choice generator from Text Finder, then organized into two categories of mask enforcement: strict and lax). Strict locations included: Connecticut, Qatar, Massachusetts, Kansas, New Mexico, Singapore, and China(Figure 3). Lax locations included: Florida, Iran, Sudan, Brazil, United Kingdom, South Carolina, and Sweden(Figure 4). 

Figure 3. Comparison of the cases

Figure 4. Comparison of the cases

Respective mask-wearing policies were collected from the CDC, WHO, and The New York Times, among other credible sources. Strict enforcement was characterized by locations enacting measurable punishments, such as fines for mask guideline violations. Lax enforcement was distinguished as locations that have allowed individuals to make personal decisions about wearing masks, trusting the individual to be responsible about mask-wearing; lax enforcement also included locations with no restrictions at all.  Locations with strict mask enforcement have the lowest COVID-19 infection rates, whereas locations with lax mask enforcement have the highest COVID-19 infection rates. It can be concluded that mask-wearing policies are the most effective in reducing COVID-19 infection rates when strictly enforced by governments. An explanation for this finding may be that stricter enforcement often results in penalties or fines, which leads to higher adoption rates of mask-wearing, which reduces COVID-19 transmission.

IV. Psychological and Social Impact: Anxiety and Stress

The pandemic has affected the psychological and physical health of millions of people. Especially, the mental-health effects could last even longer and a study shows the data of the impact of COVID-19 on mental health and well-being around the world.

(The Economist, 2020)

Figure 5. Age group vs. anxiety and depression

The authors estimated an increase of 53 million cases of depression due to the pandemic (28% above pre-pandemic levels) and 76 million cases of anxiety (26% rise).  

So that you may decrease depression symptoms among people, the World Health Organization(WHO) (2019) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDCP) (2020) suggested specific guidelines on the right use of health protection measures with the prospect of decreasing the upset linked with healthcare professions. At similar times, psychotherapists can give psychological support online (Greenberg et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020). In line with technological progress, professional groups organized specific guidelines and policies in line with customer protection, privacy, screening, evaluation, and development of self-help products (Duan and Zhu, 2020; Zhou et al., 2020). Technological growth in mental health can foresee future trends that incorporate “smart” mobile devices, cloud computing, virtual worlds, virtual reality, and electronic games as well as traditional psychotherapy tools. From this outlook, it is important to aid future generations of psychologists and patients to work together in the potential growth areas, through education and training on the advantages and effectiveness of telepsychology (Maheu et al., 2012).

Negative outlooks and non-compliance when it involves mask-wearing are likely increased, given that the suggestions and mandates have become so polarized. Towards the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, and shortly after the CDC let go of its suggestions for mask-wearing in public, Democrats and Republicans strayed somewhat in their showing of whether or not they always wore a mask in public (38% and 24%, respectively), according to an Axios/Ipsos poll. This percentage went up over time among each group as the magnitude of the pandemic increased. However, mask-wearing likely became a more polarized political issue when the CDC face mask suggestions were thrown out (both in word and action) by major government figures. This, in turn, may have increased an ‘us’ versus ‘them’ behavior between members of each party and may show why, over time, there became an even greater separation in mask wearing among Democrats (65%) and Republicans (35%) a small two months later. 

The effect of mask-wearing on basic psychological necessities (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) is likely an addition to the controversy linked with wearing masks at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States; however, forthcoming research is necessary to empirically test this theoretical evidence. It is crucial to point out that this commentary talked about some overarching psychological factors that may add to mask-wearing outlooks and behaviors. However, many other factors may also add to the determination to wear a mask and would bring investigation in foreseeable research. Some of these include altruism, self-efficacy, risk assessment, need for control or certainty, self-serving bias, perceptions of fairness, ability to engage in hot vs. cold cognition, short-term vs. long-term orientation, restraint vs. indulgence, trust in science, socioeconomic status, education level, personal experience, and other personality or physiological individual differences. 

V. Discussion

The COVID-19 pandemic, which has presented a dilemma for governments around the world since February 2020, has obfuscated the distinction between short-term and long-term responses. In the early stages of the outbreak, short-term solutions such as lockdowns and capacity restrictions were necessary to stop the spread of the epidemic.

The present discussion focused on the results of wearing a face mask from a personal level. It is imperative to acknowledge that there may be expansive associations and connotations of wearing a face mask not talked about. For example, there may be meso-level outcomes (i.e., medium systems, such as organizational, ethnic, and community), and macro-level impacts as well (i.e., large systems, such as a national economy). To our knowledge, there is presently no research that looks at face mask-wearing and the impact of more meso-and macro-level systems on the present COVID-19 pandemic.

Also, this paper tried to suggest that short-term and institutional responses can coexist as a response to the issue. In addition, the quarantine policy examined in this paper showed a partial response. It is clear that there is no one policy that can comprehensively respond to the global and social problems brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. Perhaps the government's policy cannot and does not need to fully respond to all the ills that our society faces. The government may be able to alleviate the problem by only partially responding to the public concerns and leaving the rest to the officials and citizens. In addition, the central government can overcome the issue by withholding judgment and by expressing an active choice by local governments and the media. By reviewing the quarantine policy for the COVID-19 crisis, it will be possible to discuss how a partial response to a policy problem can be improved.

This paper focused on social and psychological consequences and policies regarding quarantine and mask-wearing. In the future, it will be necessary to examine how social distancing policies have changed, in consideration of short-term and institutional responses. With more global pandemics expected in the future, it will be meaningful to study the comprehensive policy response to the problem by examining how the mask policy at an individual level and social distancing at a societal level can create an effective response that also addresses peoples’ mental and emotional wellbeing.

References 

1. Detsky, A. S. and Bogoch, I. I. (2020, August 25). The Canadian Response To COVID-19. Retrieved from https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/276943

2. Duan, L. and Zhu, G. (2020). Psychological interventions for people affected by the COVID-19 epidemic. Lancet. Psych. 7 300–302. 10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30073-

3. Greenberg, N., Docherty, M., Gnanapragasam, S. and Wessely, S. (2020). Managing mental health challenges faced by healthcare workers during covid-19 pandemic. BMJ 368:m1211. 10.1136/bmj.m121

4. Liu S., Yang L., Zhang C., Xiang Y. T., Liu Z., Hu S., et al. (2020). Online mental health services in China during the COVID-19 outbreak. Lancet. Psych. 7 E17–E18. 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30077-

5. Maheu, M. P., McMenamin, J. and Posen, L. (2012). Future of telepsychology, telehealth, and various technologies in psychological research and practice. Profess. Psychol. Res. Prac. 43 613–621. 10.1037/a0029458

6. Parshley, L. and Zhou, Y. (2020, December 4). Why every state should adopt a mask mandate, in 4 charts. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/21546014/mask-mandates-coronavirus-covid-19

7. The Economist. (2020, October 14). Tracking covid-19 excess deaths across countries. Retrieved from https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/coronavirus-excess-deaths-tracker

8. The Economist. (2020, October 11). Covid-19 has led to a sharp increase in depression and anxiety. Retrieved from https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/10/11/covid-19-has-led-to-a-sharp-increase-in-depression-and-anxiety

9. Wang, C. J., Chun, Y. and Brook, R. H. (2020, April 14). Response to COVID-19 in Taiwan: Big Data Analytics, New Technology, and Proactive Testing. Retrieved October 18, 2020, from https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2762689

10. Zhou X., Snoswell C. L., Harding L. E. (2020). The Role of Telehealth in Reducing the Mental Health Burden from COVID-19. Telemed. E Health. 26 377–379. 10.1089/tmj.2020.0068

Abstract: African Americans are often viewed as a monolithic group in the United States because Black people generally have been subjected to the same racism and prejudice throughout American society. While African Americans have had many similar experiences in the United States, their opinions on the current political, social, and economic worldview may differ based on ethnic groups. The author chose to closely examine the extent to which family history and decade of one's arrival (or one's family's arrival) to the United States, and the region from which one (or one's family) originated, might influence the current political, social and economic worldview of adolescent and adult Americans who self-identify as Black. In order to study the effects of these variables, I administered surveys to 146 African American adults in suburban New York City. The online survey consisted of four parts. These parts included views on economic success, law enforcement, current events, specifically the Black Lives Matter Movement, and Black representation in American society. Ultimately the study found statistically significant differences between region/decade of arrival and societal world views. There were also gender gaps.

Keywords: African-American, representation, BLM, Afro-Caribbean, African, economic success

I. Introduction

Although Black Americans, Caribbean Americans and Africans carry similar emotional baggage from years of oppression (Jackson & Cotharn, 2003), Black Americans are more attuned to discrimination than Afro-Caribbeans. Many Caribbean Blacks believe that their ethnic status garners more respect in the United States and that stereotypes directed towards Black Americans do not apply (Head & Thompson, 2017).  Additionally, Afro-Caribbeans tend to report higher levels of internalized racism (Molina & James, 2016). 

A word about the terminology used in this paper. After conversations with Professor Marsha Gardener, chair of the Black Studies Program at Adelphi University, the following definitions will be used throughout this study: Black American is defined as African Americans whose family history dates back to pre-Emancipation, Afro-Caribbean refers to participants who were born or descendants of those born in the Caribbean, then immigrated to the United States, African describes participants who were born or descendants of those born in Africa, then immigrated to the United States and African American describes those from any part of the African Diaspora who immigrated to the United States. 

Despite African Americans reporting significantly lower rates of upward mobility and higher rates of downward mobility compared to whites (Chetty et al., 2019), differences between Black Americans and Afro-Caribbeans continues in the sense that Afro-Caribbeans are often seen as a model minority. Ifatunji (2016) found that Afro-Caribbeans are 12% more likely to have a job than Black Americans. Additionally, Ifatunji’s study mentions that Afro-Caribbeans are less likely to characterize themselves as “lazy” and consider themselves to “work hard”(2016). Not only does subculture play a role in the determination of economic success, but generation and decade of one’s arrival contributes as well. Afro-Caribbeans born in the United States enjoy higher earnings and occupational status relative to Afro-Caribbeans who personally immigrated to the United States. According to one study, American born Afro-Caribbeans are able to better assimilate due to the influence of the Caribbean parents transmitting the concept of hard work and achievement by emphasizing the importance of schooling (Kalmijn,1996). In addition to economic success, there appears to be a generational difference among African Americans regarding law enforcement. It was found that immigrant generations rated law enforcement, specifically the police more positively on measures of effectiveness, misconduct and general satisfaction than did native-born Americans. However, they were less likely to contact the police for assistance.  “Immigrants were significantly less likely than non-immigrants to believe that the police stopping people without a good reason, police engagement in racial profiling, and verbal or physical abusive by police officers were problems” (David & Hendricks, 2007). A Canadian, study evaluated the extent to which Black youth viewed law enforcement, finding that young Blacks in Ontario believed that the police were necessary to prevent crime and provide protection, but that they saw the police as extremely homogeneous-lacking diversity, with insufficient cultural training, and prone to abuse of power (Syed et al., 2018). Moreover, a recent study of cultural and gender biases against women and teachers with non-English speaking backgrounds found that those biases tend to decrease with better representation of both women and non-native English speakers (Fan et al., 2019). The goal of the present research is to learn about internal variety in a population (my own population) too often viewed as monolithic.

II. Method / Procedure

After informed consent was obtained from participants, a four-part survey was administered. 146 African American adults participated in the study. The survey was used to determine the participants’ views on economic success, law enforcement, current events (specifically the Black Lives Matter Movement) and Black representation in American society. After completion, all surveys were scored and entered into an Excel database. Unpaired t-tests, linear and multiple regressions, and between-group ANOVAs were run on all variables to determine mean differences between African Americans of different ethnicities, and to determine the extent to which a variety of independent variables accounted for the variation in the dependent variables.

III. Results

Males perceived better economic opportunities in America (p<.05), and reported rarely changing their views on policing over the last year, relative to females (p<.05). Immigrants express greater overall trust for the police (p< .05) vis-a-vis other groups and are less likely to have changed their views since last year (p<.05). First generation Americans are more likely than immigrants or second/third generation Americans to strongly support BLM (p’s >.05). Curiously, immigrants are the group most likely to see themselves represented in American culture (p<.05). As predicted, Black identity influences views on policing, BLM & representation. Afro-Caribbean’s are least critical of police behavior, but most likely to express evolving attitudes (p’s <.05). Africans are the strongest supporters of BLM (p<.05), yet also the group least likely to see themselves represented in American culture (p<.05). Hypotheses 1 and 2 were neither proved/ nor disproved as there was not enough evidence to support the hypothesis. Hypothesis 3 was supported in that Afro- Caribbeans were least critical of the police compared to Black American. Hypothesis 4 was proved in that Afro-Caribbeans had a mean representation index of 2.82 whereas Black Americans had a representation index of 2.54. Furthermore, the main hypothesis, that African Americans’ cultural background matters in predicting political attitudes and worldview, is supported. However, the picture is nuanced, and further study is warranted. 

IV. Discussion

Among 146 African Americans adults, my research unearthed a significant but nuanced relationship between different African American ethnic groups and decade of one’s, or one’s family’s, arrival and their opinions on economics, law enforcement, representation and current events. This study demonstrates that although African Americans are viewed as monolithic, there are significant ethnic differences between Black Americans, Afro-Caribbeans and Africans. The results of this study demonstrate the different outlooks on racism by each ethnic group. Additionally, it addresses factors that must be changed to provide equal economic opportunity between African Americans and their white counterparts. It demonstrates the attitudes that Blacks have towards the police, especially with the current political and social climate and how the law enforcement must dismantle the racist system it was built on. It was expected that Afro-Caribbeans would have a higher representation index than Black Americans (Table 5) mostly because Afro-Caribbeans and Africans come from a country that is predominantly black compared to native born Black Americans who have lived in predominantly white communities for generations and have been subject to their jurisdiction for years as well. However, it was surprising to see that First Generation Americans were more likely than immigrants and second/third generations to support Black Lives Matter because we expected third generation Americans to be more supportive because their family history has suffered generations of the prevalent racism in the United States; this would presumably make them more likely to advocate immediate social change. However, there were some limitations to this experiment. The number of Afro-Caribbeans in the sample doubled the number of Black Americans. Based on the Nassau County Census the participants in this study were not an accurate representation of Black America or Black New York. Moreover, 31% of Nassau County’s African Americans hold a Bachelor’s degree or higher. However, in my sample, 84.5% of the participants had at least a bachelor’s degree. This likely resulted from the “snowball sampling” I employed; those who helped distribute my survey had a graduate degree themselves and sent the link to African American friends, relatives and colleagues. This snowball effect also contributed to the lack of Black Americans because many of my “key informants were of Afro-Caribbean descent themselves. As often happens, female respondents tripled the males in my study. In the future, I plan to increase my number of Black Americans as well as the number of males in my study. I will also seek a more diversely educated sample of African Americans. Further, because my study was entirely quantitative due to the Covid-19 pandemic (i.e. related focus groups were prohibited.) I plan to run a Phase II  qualitative study. The consequent mixed-method study will better answer “how” and “why” questions in greater detail.

Works Cited

1. Bunyasi, T. L. (2019, February 6). Do All Black Lives Matter Equally to Black People? Respectability Politics and the Limitations of Linked Fate | Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. Cambridge Core. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-race-ethnicity-and-politics/article/do-all-black-lives-matter-equally-to-black-people-respectability-politics-and-the-limitations-of-linked-fate/CBC842CABC6F8FAA6C892B08327B09DA
2. Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2019, December 26). Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective*. OUP Academic. https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/135/2/711/5687353?login=true
3. Davis, R., & Hendricks, N. (2007, January 1). Immigrants and Law Enforcement: A Comparison of Native-Born and Foreign-Born Americans’ Opinions of the Police. International Review of Victimology. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/026975800701400105
4. Fan, Y. (2019, February 13). Gender and cultural bias in student evaluations: Why representation matters. Plos One.

Abstract: Extreme weather events are becoming more prevalent with increasing global temperatures. In the Northeastern U.S., spring frost events are destroying forest ecosystems by defoliating newly budded trees. In order to grasp a better understanding of community dynamics and carbon fluxes, it is imperative to understand more about species-specific phenological and physiological responses to these events. This study aimed to investigate the legacy effects of a spring frost event in Black Rock Forest on the specific photosynthetic and intrinsic water use efficiency responses within unaffected red maples and sugar maples alongside defoliated red oaks. A LI-6800 machine conducted gas exchange measurements in the north, south, valley, and headquarter sites for each species. The new flush of red oak leaves portrayed

the greatest amount of photosynthetic productivity and efficiency while red maples and sugar maples retained their original characteristics with increased sensitivities. Hence, the defoliated tree species had a competitive advantage with shifted phenological patterns. Future research can be conducted several growing seasons after the frost event to determine the extent to which these events impact species dynamics, including DBH tree growth. New predicative carbon models can also be formed to create new management for tree implantation’s that maximize sequestration rates.

Keywords: spring frost event, defoliation, photosynthetic productivity, water use efficiency, sequestration

I. Introduction

Due to changing climate conditions, extreme weather events including prolonged droughts, tropical storms, damaging spring frost events and heat waves are expected to become more common in forests of the northeastern United States (Richardson et al 2006, Diffenbaugh et al. 2018). In the northeastern United States, freezing events after bud break in the spring have had detrimental effects to deciduous forests by defoliating trees and consequently decreasing net carbon uptake (Vitasse et al. 2014, Nolè et al. 2018, Hufkens et al. 2012). Furthermore, research has suggested that a spring frost may have significant implications on the community composition of higher elevation hardwood forests in the northeast region (Hufkens et al. 2012). More specifically, they can tilt range margins and tree competition dynamics from sugar maples to other species (Hufkens et al. 2012). While the occurrence of this event is expected to increase, the understanding of the effects of a spring frost event on ecosystem-based carbon fluxes and the physiological sensitivities of co-existing tree species remains uncertain.

On May 8/9 of 2020, a late spring frost event occurred at higher elevations across the Hudson Highlands Region in southeastern New York, leading to temperatures declining from 25°C to just above -5°C. This region is cloaked with temperate broadleaf forests dominated by oak trees (Quercus sp.) and the hard freeze caused widespread defoliation of the newly emerged oak leaves. However, co-occurring red maple and sugar maple trees (Acer) leafed out after the frost event and were unaffected. The genus-specific influence of this spring frost event presents a unique opportunity to investigate species-specific physiological responses among red oaks (Q. rubra), red maples (A. rubrum) and sugar maples (A. saccharum). Doing so will increase knowledge of plant community dynamics and their effect on global biogeochemistry in the northeast, as these are three of the most common tree species in the region (Richardson et al. 2009) and there is evidence of an increase in the relative abundance of red maples across the eastern US (Abrams, 1998). Furthermore, although stochastic extreme climate events such as the spring frost have important carbon cycling implications (Príncipe et al. 2017), they are difficult to predict. Thus, through photosynthetic measurements, this research can help directly study the influence of these events on canopy carbon exchange.

Previous research has depicted the damaging effects that spring frost events can have on a forest ecosystem (Vitesse et al. 2014) and how variations in phenology and physiology could impart species-specific responses to such conditions (Hanninen & Tanino 2011, Kim et al. 2014). This study aimed to quantify the differential effects of this late spring frost event on the trends regarding photosynthetic capacity and water-use efficiency of red oaks, red maples and sugar maple trees in the Hudson Highlands Region of New York across the growing season. It was expected that at the start of the growing season, red oaks would have a significantly smaller photosynthetic capacity and efficiency as compared to red maples and sugar maples. Thus, the maples were predicted to increase in competitiveness.

II. Materials and Methodology

From late May through June 2020,  leaf-level measurements were made every two weeks and monthly thereafter through September. Morning shotgun sampling was used to obtain branches <1.5 cm diameter from the upper canopy of each tree on each date. To maintain transpiration stream, the lower part of each branch was immediately snipped and submerged into a container of water that rested in the sunlight, allowing the leaves to acclimate to conditions prior to being measured. Gas exchange measurements were conducted within 45 minutes of initial leaf detachment from the tree to allow the leaves on excised branches to maintain constant gas exchange rates for at least one hour.

Leaf level gas exchange measurements, including carbon assimilation (i.e. photosynthesis; A) and stomatal conductance (gsw), were made using the LI-6800 (LI-COR Inc., Lincoln, Nebraska, USA) with the chamber set to saturating light conditions (i.e. 1400 µmoles/m2/s), a temperature of 24-26 °C and 60% relative humidity. This machine uses a mass balance approach and can find the photosynthetic rate, also known as the ‘A’ value, by calculating the net CO2 assimilation of a leaf placed in its chamber. Similarly, it also calculates the stomatal conductance, also known as ‘gsw’ of a leaf, which measures the amount of water vapor exiting through the stomata of a leaf. A and gsw were used to calculate the intrinsic WUE, the WUE of a tree at the leaf level, using the following equation: A/gsw (Medrano et al. 2015).

III. Results

Photosynthesis Rates

The defoliated red oaks had a mean rate of photosynthesis for the growing season that was significantly greater than that of the red maples and sugar maples by 3.8 µmol m-2 s-1 (Fig. 1). The defoliated red oaks and non defoliated red oaks alongside the red maples and sugar maples cannot be statistically compared to each other, as their error bars overlap each other and each other means (Fig. 1).  Red maple and sugar maples had nearly the same mean photosynthetic rates (Fig. 1).

Intrinsic Water Use Efficiency Rates

The non defoliated red oaks, otherwise known as the control group,  had the highest mean intrinsic water use efficiency of 120.1 µmol CO2/mol H20 across the growing season (Fig. 2). Due to the error bars of the defoliated red oaks, red maples and sugar maples overlapping each other and each other's means, they cannot be statistically compared to one another (Fig. 2). However, the defoliated red oaks did have the lowest, but comparatively moderate, mean water use efficiency of 78.84 µmol CO2/mol H20 (Fig. 2). Similar to their photosynthetic rates, the sugar maples and red maples had nearly identical mean intrinsic water use efficiencies (Fig. 2).

IV. Discussion

Photosynthesis

While the red maples and sugar maples initially had a competitive advantage by breaking bud after the hard freeze event, their photosynthetic rates were eventually overcome by that of the red oaks. Both species behaved nearly identically in the early and late growing season by being initially photosynthetically productive and exhibiting declining productivity by mid growing season.

Intrinsic Water Use Efficiency

Sugar maples and red maples tended to decrease their intrinsic water use efficiency later into the growing season. More specifically, within sites with more arid conditions, including the north site for red maples and headquarters for sugar maples, WUE was declining significantly, portraying the species inability to counteract their sensitivities to ecostress. This decline contradicts the basis that a plant would attempt to increase its water use efficiency when there was limited water availability for photosynthesis (Hatfield & Dold, 2019).

Reasons

The lack of competitiveness and productivity for red maples may have been due to the dry conditions they faced during the latter part of the growing season. Red maples typically decrease productivity when there are drought-like conditions and vapor pressure deficits (Anderson & Ryser, 2015). Hence, it is possible that the red maples shut down their photosynthetic processes by closing their stomata during arid conditions. For the sugar maples, their general inability to deal with the hotter temperatures in the growing season contradicts their typical conservative nature and self-developed resistant mechanisms which allow them to have a long life span (Goldblum & Kennett, 2010). This poses a question regarding the specific temperature sensitivity of photosynthesis within sugar maples, as they may have been focusing more heavily on cooling off then being productive. Overall, the maples chose to hinder photosynthetic processes during hotter temperatures and instead use their energy and water availability to cool down with transpiration.

V. Conclusion

This research demonstrates the wide effects that a spring frost event can have on certain species and overarching community dynamics. The second flush of leaves from the defoliated tree species, which in this case is the red oaks, have enhanced resistance mechanisms in regards to changing environmental conditions and thus are more photosynthetically productive. On the other hand, the species that are unaffected by the freeze event were not able to take proper advantage of their foliated conditions. They retained their original characteristics but were also more susceptible to arid conditions. In the case of this study, the idea that red maples are harmed by drought-like conditions is reinforced, while the idea of sugar maples maintaining relatively consistent physiological habits is variable. Naturally, species with more productivity maintain enhanced intrinsic WUE mechanisms.

There are certain legacy effects for this late spring frost event and others like it in the northeastern US. These events will likely change competition dynamics in an ecosystem, as the second flush of leaves from the defoliated tree species will be younger and stronger. Furthermore, these events will most likely have a complex change on the carbon sequestration of the affected region. There will be an initial significant decrease in net carbon intake due to the negative photosynthetic rates of the defoliated tree species. This may be counteracted, however, by the high rates of photosynthesis provided by the same defoliated tree species later on into the growing season.

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Abstract: Though sharp-wave ripples have been recorded in the EEG data of the hippocampus of mammals for years, it remains unclear how ripples can contribute to memory for different behaviors.. Sharp wave ripples are one of the most synchronous patterns in the mammalian brain. These waves are most common during non-REM sleep, although they can also be associated with consummatory behaviors. In EEG recordings, these occurrences can be seen as large amplitude negative polarity deflections (40–100 ms) in CA1 stratum radiatum that are associated with a short-lived fast oscillatory pattern of the LFP in the CA1 pyramidal layer, known as “ripples.” The purpose of this study was to investigate the distinction between sleep and awake ripples along with the connection between sharp-wave ripples and specific mammalian behaviors during memory tasks. The hypothesis tested was that SPW-Rs occur when the animal has an experience that will help guide subsequent successful task completion that results in obtaining a desired reward. To conduct the experiment electrophysiological signals were collected from a rat’s hippocampus during various tasks. The data were then analyzed using Neuroscope and compared to a visual recording of the rat’s actions. The data suggest that sharp wave ripples are more likely to occur close to a reward, most often before the reward, and do not have a higher tendency to occur early or late in learning. Future research can further clarify these results and investigate the process by which these ripples occur.

I. Introduction

The thoroughly investigated hippocampus, a region of the brain, is shown to have a pivotal role in learning and consolidation of memory (Bartsch and Wulff, 2015). This complex, elongated structure is embedded deep in the medial temporal lobe, forming part of the limbic system, and known to regulate emotional responses (Anand and Dhikav, 2012; Knierim, 2015). The hippocampus is a plastic structure that may be damaged by several stimuli (Anand and Dhikav, 2012). It can be distinguished externally with a layer of densely packed neurons that curl into a S-shaped structure on the edge of the temporal lobe (Anand and Dhikav, 2012). The hippocampus consists of two parts: Cornu ammonis, or hippocampus proper, and dentate gyrus (DG) (Anand and Dhikav, 2012). These two parts are separated by the hippocampus proper and curve into one another (Anand and Dhikav, 2012). The Cornu ammonis or hippocampus proper is divided into CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4 (Anand and Dhikav, 2012). The hippocampus is part of the allocortex, or archicortex, and is separated from the neocortex (Anand and Dhikav, 2012). In rodents, the hippocampus is a relatively large, cashew-shaped structure that lies beneath the neocortex (Knierim, 2015). The cross-section of its long axis reveals the hippocampal anatomical connectivity, or the trisynaptic loop (Knierim, 2015). This loop can be described as follows: the entorhinal cortex, composed of two distinct brain regions in rats, provides major cortical input to the hippocampus with strong projections from the performant path to the DG region; the DG region projects to the CA3 region via the mossy fiber pathway; CA3 projects to the CA1 region via the Schaffer Collateral pathway; CA1 projects back to the previously described entorhinal cortex (Knierim, 2015). It should be noted that the connectivity within the transverse axis of the hippocampus is complex, with multiple parallel processing and feedback circuits: the entorhinal complex also directly projects to the CA3 and CA1 regions; CA3 provides a feedback projection to the DG through excitatory mossy cells of the dentate hilus, proving that the hippocampal processing is not exclusively unidirectional (Knierim, 2015). The CA2 unit has its own functions and is regarded as a distinct computational unit similar to the CA3 and CA1 (Knierim, 2015). A copious amount of information is known about the neurophysiology of the hippocampus. The most studied cell of hippocampal neural activity is the place cell (Knierim, 2015). The pyramidal cells, a type of multipolar neuron, of the CA1, CA2, CA3 regions, and the granule cells in the DG, are selectively fired when rats inhabit more than one specific location in an environment, which is the ‘firing field’ or ‘place field’ (Knierim, 2015). Discovering these cells prompted the theory that the hippocampus forms a cognitive map of the environment (Knierim, 2015).

Sharp-wave ripples have been observed in the hippocampus of every species investigated so far including humans (Bragin et al., 1999; Le Van Quyen et al., 2010). These waves are most common during non-REM sleep, although they are also associated with consummatory behaviors during wakefulness. Furthermore, they are the most synchronous events in the mammalian brain and are thus associated with short, impermanent excitability in the hippocampus. The synchronous population events from SPW-Rs are especially significant because they can lead to  interictal epileptic discharges if altered erroneously (Suzuki and Smith, 1988; Buzs􏰀aki et al., 1989) and the fast ripples are often used as markers for epileptic propensity (Bragin et al., 1999). Additionally, the spike content of SPW-Rs represents sequentially organized neurons similar to those in the walking animal.

While extensive research has covered SPW-Rs in the past, the timing of these events during different stages of learning and in different behavioral tasks remains poorly understood. Therefore, the goal of this project is to evaluate the role of sharp wave ripples in learning and discover the relationship between these ripples and actions of mammals in behavioral tasks. To do this, EEG recordings were collected and analyzed from rats during various behavioral tasks. The hypothesis tested in this study is that SPW-Rs occur when the animal has an experience that will help guide subsequent successful task completion that results in obtaining a desired reward. This research can help fill in the gaps of knowledge regarding mechanisms of learning and memory in diverse mammalian behaviors.

II. Materials and Methods

The data collected from each training session were stored and opened in Neuroscope to be analyzed. NeuroScope is a viewer for displaying various physiological and behavioral data and it allows comparison of analyzed data with the original recordings. NeuroScope allowed the researcher to mark specific occurrences of the sharp wave ripple and then compare those occurrences to the video file to determine the relationship between the actions of the animals and the sharp wave ripple occurrences. To open the files in Neuroscope correctly, input the correct number of channels, sampling rate, and amplification (the amplification can be modified later).

Once the physiological recordings are imported into Neuroscope the first step to analyzing the SPW-Rs is isolating specific channels. Look for channels with ripples and waves to easily see the artifacts. Extraneous channels can be hidden from the “Units” section and important channels can be moved into separate groups to better organize the channels. Next, with the duration set to about 1000 milliseconds, the researcher can begin scanning the data for SPW-Rs. The measure tool can be used to calculate the period between the peaks of the ripples and the duration of the ripples. After creating or loading an event file, new events can be marked for each artifact.

III. Results

After collecting the recordings from a sleeping rat, the data were imported into Neuroscope to be analyzed. The specific channels to be viewed were moved to a separate group and the channels were organized so that the ripples could be seen vertically above or below the sharp waves. In the sleep state, SPW-Rs are much clearer to observe in the channels and more common to find, especially during non-REM sleep. These ripples can be measured with a period of five to seven milliseconds from peak to peak (using the measuring tool), last between 20-100 milliseconds, and are seen adjacent to sharp waves in the lower channels. There were 110 minutes of data collection for the sleep state and the various SPW-Rs throughout the were marked in the event file. During a period of ten minutes during non-REM sleep, thirty SPW-R occurrences were marked. This resulted in a calculated rate of events value of 3.0 SPW-Rs per minute by dividing the number of occurrences over the number of minutes that the ripples spanned over.

IV. Discussion

The first result of this study found that SPW-Rs are more common to find during non-REM sleep states than the awake state in rats. According to the results, there were about 3 occurrences per minute for the sleep state while the rate was only 1.2 for the awake state, suggesting that SPW-Rs occur more often during sleep. Only one trial was analyzed for the sleep state rate, however, this finding conforms to previously believed ideas about the ripples in non-REM sleep.

The next part of this study analyzed the SPW-Rs in relation to a reward during the cheeseboard task. Data was collected from four files and the SPW-Rs were detected and compared to the video of the rat. The data suggest that SPW-Rs are slightly more likely to occur close to a reward (immediately before or after they found and ate the food in the cheese board task) than at other times during the task. Calculating the proportion of ripples in each condition found that ripples occurred close to the reward 56% of the time, just slightly more than ripples not close to the reward. Further research is necessary to draw definitive conclusions from this result however, since many of the events that were considered not close to a reward occurred at moments the rat was not on the cheeseboard and out of view from the camera angle. Thus, further research should be conducted taking into consideration the actions of the rats between the learning tasks when the rats were off the board.

Finally, this study looked at the difference between the number of SPW-Rs in the first training session compared to the second training session to see whether SPW-Rs occurred more in the early or late stages of learning. The data collected show that they are more likely to occur in the first training session, with 57% of ripples occurring in the first session. However, a closer look at the data shows that one file seemed to be an outlier, with 34 occurrences, thus, it is more likely that SPW-Rs occur at the same tendency in the first session as the second session. By eliminating the first trial, the proportion of ripples in the first session averages out to just 52% which is much closer to an equal number of ripples for both sessions. Thus, the null hypothesis fails to be rejected and there is no statistically significant evidence to suggest that SPW-Rs occur more often earlier in learning than later.

V. Conclusion

The purpose of this research was to study the role of sharp wave ripples in learning and discover the relationship between these ripples and the actions of mammals in behavioral tasks. After collecting data from rats during various training sessions, the study was able to support four important findings: (1) SPW-Rs are more common to find during non-REM sleep states than the awake state in rats. (2) SPW-Rs are slightly more likely to occur close to a reward than at other times during the task. (3) SPW-Rs are marginally more likely to occur before a reward is found rather than after the reward. (4) SPW-Rs do not occur more often earlier in learning than later.

Although this study was deliberately planned, every experiment faces some inevitable limitations. Some of these limitations from this experiment include the small sample size, noise from around the silicon probe affecting the data recordings, and the human error involved in analyzing hours of data collection. Inevitably, some events may have been missed. While these limitations are important to address, it is important to note that they are unlikely to have a significant effect on the results of this study.

Future research will be important to confirm the results of this study and further analyze the role of SPW-Rs in memory consolidation. Further research could include learning about the specific biological mechanisms by which SPW-Rs form, the reasoning behind the visual difference between sleep and awake state ripples, and the process by which SPW-Rs spread across the brain from the hippocampus.

References

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Abstract: Pneumonia, a fatal lung disease, is caused by infection of Streptococcus pneumoniae; it is detected by chest x-rays that reveal inflammation of the alveoli. However, the efficiency by which it is diagnosed can be improved through the use of artificial intelligence. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs), a form of artificial intelligence, have recently demonstrated enhanced accuracy when classifying images. This study used CNNs to analyze chest x-rays and predict the probability the patient has pneumonia. Furthermore, a comprehensive investigation was conducted, examining the function of various components of the CNN, in the context of pneumonia x-rays. This study was able to achieve significantly high performance, making it viable for clinical implementation. Furthermore, the architecture of the proposed model is applicable to various other diseases, and can thus be used to optimize the disease diagnosis industry.

Keywords: artificial intelligence, disease diagnosis, pneumonia, convolutional neural networks, machine learning

I. Introduction

Streptococcus pneumoniae is an infectious bacteria that causes pneumonia, a disease characterized by inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs. Causing over 2500 deaths each year, this disease can be lethal if not treated. Furthermore, the mortality rate grows exponentially as the age of the diseased increases, reaching as high as 2.2 percent. Pneumonia has also been found to be prevalent in many infected with SARS-CoV-2. Nevertheless, pneumonia is easily treated with antibiotics if it is diagnosed at an early stage.

Currently, pneumonia is diagnosed with the help of x-rays. Several images are compiled to construct a two-dimensional cross section of the subject's chest. A modified form of this technique also exists, in which a computed tomography (CT) scan is used to generate a three-dimensional map. In both cases, the resulting image is then manually examined for symptoms of pneumonia. Although this process has proven to be effective, it can take up to 20 minutes to complete. Automation of pneumonia diagnosis would streamline the process and remove the need for specialization in that field.

In this study, a convolutional neural network was designed and trained to analyze pneumonia radiographs and produce an appropriate diagnosis. The proposed model was demonstrated to achieve a high accuracy rate and low time cost.

II. Convolutional Neural Networks

Although feed-forward neural networks perform well on most datasets, as the number of inputs grows, larger networks are needed. As a result, the computation time increases, as well as the chance of overfitting, a condition in which the model memorizes the training data and cannot generalize to new data. In 1994, a new architecture for deep learning, dubbed the convolutional neural network, was proposed. This model specializes in image classification, employing feature extraction and analysis.

Prior to convolutional neural networks, modified forms of neural networks had been proposed to improve performance of image classifiers. Algorithms such as frequency modulation, biorthogonal wavelet transform, and logistic regression have been previously used to reduce the computational load and counteract the large input sizes. However, each of these techniques requires preprocessing to extract and validate features from the image. Convolutional neural networks resolve this issue by implementing feature extraction in its early layers; later layers of the model are then used to analyze the detected attributes, as demonstrated in Figure 2 [11].

III. Pooling

The three types of pooling are applicable to different situations, depending on the task. Average pooling is typically used to prevent overfitting. When a convolutional neural network overfits, its filters look for features unique to each image in the training dataset; when a one of these features is identified, the model pairs it with an output. By stochastically determining the representative elements, the model cannot associate filters with images, as there is a chance an unrepresentative element will be chosen that will cause the model to produce a false prediction.

Average pooling uses the average of each pool when generating the pooled feature map; as a result, this pooling technique is influenced by outliers. This works well in situations, as the features will sway the representative elements, allowing their shape to be retained. However, it is important to note that the contrast between the foreground and the background will decrease, as the background pixels will also pull the average towards themselves. This is illustrated in Figure 7: in both scenarios, the feature is still visible in the pooled feature map, albeit with less contrast [13].

Max pooling differs from average pooling, as it takes the largest element from each subsection. This technique is more appropriate than average pooling in situations where the background is dark, and the foreground is light; since the lighter elements have higher values, they will be selected when pooling. However, when the image's features are dark, background elements are selected during pooling, as their values are larger. As shown in Figure 6, the feature is maintained in image B, but lost in image A [13].

In this study, max pooling was used, as it is the most appropriate technique for the dataset of chest CT scans. As shown in Figure 10, the chest x-rays used in this study consist of a black background, with white features. Since max pooling preserves these types of features better than average pooling, it was used to improve model performance.

IV. Fully Connected Layers

Once all the features from the input image have been extracted, they must be analyzed for the model to produce a prediction. Fully connected layers (FCLs) are employed to perform this task. They function very similar to feed forward neural networks (Figure 1) in that they employ a system of neurons and synapses to analyze a series of inputs. In a convolutional neural network, the fully connected layer is placed after the convolution and pooling layers; it receives a list of pooled maps as input [10].

V. Results and discussion

Using the GPU provided by Google Colaboratory, each model was trained in roughly ten minutes. This is a relatively low time-cost, making the model cheap and easy to train, an important characteristic when being implemented in a clinical environment.

The training periods of the five models are illustrated in Figure 9. Graphs 9a and 9b display a steady upward trend in validation AUROC and AUPR as the model trained. The best performing model achieved a maximum validation AUROC of 0.9856 and a maximum validation AUPR of 0.9832, indicating the model performed very well. Moreover, in Figure 9b, the model AUPR statistics had not yet completely plateaued; this suggests additional training would further increase the accuracy. Figure 9c shows a consistent decrease in validation loss during training. The models exhibited no signs of overfitting, as demonstrated by unidirectional trend in all three graphs; if overfitting had occurred, the graphs would resemble a parabola - after some improvement, the models' performance would begin to worsen.

After training, each model was evaluated on the test images; the results are summarized in Table 3. The five models had an average AUROC of 0.9728, with the best model reaching 0.9754. The AUROC statistic measures the discriminatory behaviorfootnote{Discriminatory behavior - the ability of a neural network to produce outputs close to 0 and 1} of a model; the high AUROC value of the proposed model indicates that it performs well in distinguishing between normal and pneumonia. In contrast to AUROC, the AUPR statistics measures the frequency of correct classifications; the proposed model's mean AUPR of 0.9710 indicates it performs well in classifying pneumonia and normal x-rays. The difference between AUROC and AUPR can best be understood as quality vs quantity; AUROC represents the quality of predictions whereas AUPR represents the quantity of correct predictions. The proposed model was successful in achieving high values in both AUROC and AUPR.

VI. Conclusion

In this study, we designed a convolutional neural network to diagnose patients with pneumonia, by analyzing chest x-rays. The architecture of the proposed model was revolutionary in that it only used two convolutional layers with a mere 32 filters each. The model's size was significantly smaller than most conventional neural networks, thus giving it computational superiority and allowing it to be trained in relatively short periods of time. In addition, the model achieved high performance in both the receiver operating characteristic curve and the precision recall curve.

It's success in distinguishing normal from pneumonia diseased patients makes it viable for clinical use. Implementing an artificial intelligence tool in medical facilities can help streamline the process by which pneumonia is detected; the model constructed in this study diagnoses x-rays in less than 3 milliseconds, compared to the 20 minutes required by human analysis. Furthermore, this architecture is extendable to other diseases, including cancer, arthritis, and multiple sclerosis, that use medical imaging for diagnosis. As such, when an x-ray is obtained, it can be fed through several neural networks, each trained to detect a different disease, resulting in a distribution depicting the patient's probability of having each disease.

In the future, modifications of the proposed architecture can be researched. Residual connections can be employed to link the output of the first convolutional layer to the fully connected layers. In addition, different optimization algorithms and activation functions can be tested for their impact on performance. Conducting more experiments before clinical implementation is important in that a false negative error can be fatal; thus, it is necessary to research methods that can further increase accuracy.

References

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I. Introduction

Even though Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is the leading cause of disability worldwide impacting over 300 million individuals, early detection and intervention is hindered by the limited knowledge of its underlying mechanisms [1]. One association found to be significant within MDD is the presence of early life stress (ELS), such as sexual abuse [2], emotional abuse [3] and family conflict [4].  However, the biological mechanism linking ELS and MDD are unknown.

Though the volumetric findings appear consistent, an important open question is the functional consequences of these structural differences. In addition to structure, ELS may affect function by influencing glucocorticoid levels. Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones which play a significant role in the onset of stress response mechanisms and regulate brain development, such as neurogenesis, differentiation, and migration [10, 16, 30]. In a healthy person, the HPA stress response results in the secretion of glucocorticoids to promote energy redistribution for recovery of the system and stress adaptation [31, 32]. In this sense, glucocorticoid signaling controls stress reactivity through the inhibition of the HPA axis [33] and alterations in this signaling due to ELS may lead to dysregulation of HPA axis function [34]. Rodent studies measuring mRNA levels of glucocorticoid receptors in the brain have reported a persistent decrease in mRNA expression in areas such as the HIP and AMY[34, 35]. In humans with a history of ELS decreased glucocorticoid DNA extracted from was reported [33]. These reduced glucocorticoid levels due to ELS may impair brain functioning in adults, affecting metabolic activity.

FDG-PET studies can assess cerebral metabolic rate of glucose uptake [36, 37]. An FDG-PET study involving rhesus monkeys with ELS (maternal separation after birth) reported lower HIP brain activity in the monkeys exposed to ELS compared to controls [6]. In humans, a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study also indicated that HPA axis hypo-reactivity after the ELS occurs in adults in a similar manner as seen in animal models [38]. Other human fMRI studies demonstrate that neuronal activity is decreased in the prefrontal‐limbic‐thalamic‐cerebellar circuitry including the AMY in response to stress in adults [5, 39] and in kids [22]. It is thought that activity may be blunted due to ELS because patients adapt to the stressors. However, not all studies have been consistent. For example, hyperreactivity in the AMY following ELS has been shown in other human fMRI studies in adults [15, 16, 40, 41]. Prior studies have found a relationship between ELS and MDD. Figure 4 demonstrates ways in which structural changes and depression are possibly caused due the presence of ELS.

To properly assess the function consequences of ELS within MDD and address these open questions, we propose an analysis of the metabolism of AMY, ACC, HIP, and DLPFC through FDG PET in addition to a structural MRI in MDD patients with and without ELS. We hypothesize that in MDD patients with prior history of ELS, compared to those without ELS, will have a smaller volume/cortical thickness as measured by MRI and decreased metabolism as measured by PET scans in the bilateral DLPFC, ACC, HIP, and AMY. This study would for the first time, assess both structure and function of critical regions of the HPA axis in MDD, while accounting for the common confounder of ELS.

II. Methods and Materials

Clinical Measures

Eligibility: Participants were first screened over the phone by a study team member to determine interest in the study and eligibility. Participants were then asked to visit the laboratory and assessed by a clinician (psychiatric nurse or psychiatrist) and a rater (psychologist or trained staff). The rater completed the clinical interview for current and lifetime psychiatric diagnosis (SCID-IV)  substance use disorders, eating disorders, psychotic disorders, anxiety disorders, covering mood disorders, and somatoform disorders [58] and MADRS.

Eligible participants were scheduled for a simultaneous positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance (PET/MR) scan with the fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) tracer (see below for methods) on a Siemens Biograph mMR. As FDG is an analogue of sugar, it gets taken up to a greater extent in regions of the brain with higher metabolic activity.  This study examined T1 weighted MRO (for thickness/volume) and FDG-PET (for metabolism) imaging only.

Within 7 days of imaging, participants completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) [59]. The presence of ELS was established by have a subscale score of ‘none’ (0), ‘low’ (1), ‘moderate’ (2) or ‘severe’ (3) in one or more groups of emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical abuse, physical neglect, and sexual abuse as seen in Table 1. Total CTQ was divided into 2 groups: ‘none to low’ and ‘moderate to severe’.

Statistical Analysis

Covariates: A chi-squared test with exact p-values based on Monte Carlo simulation was used to examine the marginal association between the categorical variable (sex) and ELS (4 levels). Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare unadjusted marginal differences for any continuous covariates (age, age2 [to account for a potential non-linear relationship between variables and age], total childhood trauma severity) as well as continuous outcome variables (thickness in ACC/DLPFC, volume in HIP/AMY/ACC/DLPFC, metabolism in HIP/AMY/ACC/DLPFC) among three or more groups (4 levels of ELS (0 vs. 1 vs. 2 vs. 3)). A Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to compare unadjusted marginal differences for the continuous variable (total childhood trauma severity) across the categorical variable (sex). Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used to measure the linear relationship between the continuous outcome variables and total childhood trauma severity.

Models: Multiple linear regression models were utilized to examine (1) the differences between discrete levels of childhood trauma for each outcome variable (thickness in bilateral ACC/DLPFC, volume in bilateral HIP/AMY/ACC/DLPFC, metabolism in bilateral HIP/AMY/ACC/DLPFC) (2) the relationships between each outcome variable and continuous total childhood trauma severity, after controlling for age, age2 and sex. A two-way interaction between ELS level (discrete) and brain region or total childhood trauma severity (continuous) and brain region were examined first. If no significant results were found, then individual variables were considered in the linear mixed models. Age, age2 and sex were adjusted for in the model, and a Compound Symmetric variance-covariance structure for the longitudinal measurements was selected based on Akaike Information Criteria (AIC). Other variance-covariance structures considered included Unstructured and Autoregressive. Pairwise comparisons between levels of early life stress were reported. Statistical analysis was performed using SAS 9.4 and significance level was set at 0.05 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). To examine the relationship between structure and function, the Spearman Correlation coefficient was calculated between metabolic rate of glucose uptake and either thickness or metabolism of each region.

III. Results

Categorical Analysis

Of the variables shown in Figure 5, three showed significant differences across ELS levels (Table 3).  DLPFC thickness differences were driven by significant differences between low and moderate childhood trauma levels as well as between low and severe levels.  Metabolism in the ACC was only significantly different between none and low levels, while metabolism in the DLPFC was significantly different between none and low as well as between none and moderate.

Structure vs Function

We additionally wanted to determine whether there was a correlation between the structural and functional components of each of the four areas. Figure 7 presents a direct significant correlation between metabolism and thickness in the DLPFC (p=.006). Volume in this area was not significant with metabolism, nor was thickness or volume in any of the other regions.

IV. Discussion

Cortical Thickness vs Cortical Volume

In this work, both cortical thickness and volume of the ACC and DLPFC were examined.  Both point to different properties. Cortical thickness and surface area measurements are independent globally and regionally. These two measurements are also genetically and phenotypically uncorrelated. Grey matter volume contains aspects of both traits but is more genetically and environmentally correlated to surface area. As a result, volume is likely to be influenced by some combination of these genetic factor, indicating that area or thickness measurements would be advantageous to volume for gene discovery [66].

However, volume measurements are generally more reliable than thickness measurements as they are highly correlated with head size, whereas thickness is not [67]. Volume-based techniques may also be advantageous for multivariate analysis that include voxel-based functional imaging such as PET and fMRI.

Cortical Regions: Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

Following AMY activation, stress is regulated by the prefrontal cortex [10] which not only maintains homeostasis, but also assists in the detection of threats [11]. The ACC is a region that connects the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system and holds a crucial role in emotional regulation. In this study, ACC and DLPFC volume were not associated with CT, either in the categorical or the continuous analysis.  However, DLPFC thickness and metabolism were significantly different across some of the categories of childhood trauma.  The lack of linear association with childhood trauma may suggest that DLPFC is more susceptible to any level of trauma, regardless of severity.

Relatedly, DLPFC thickness (but not volume) and metabolism showed a significant correlation. The prefrontal cortex is heavily involved in executive function, attention, and memory. Additionally, the DLPFC is one of the last cortical regions to mature functionally and structurally.

It is important, however, to note that statistical significance does not imply clinical significance.  The significant differences in DLPFC thickness ranged from 0.08 to 0.10 mm. For metabolism, differences ranged from 0.72 to 0.87.  As such, the functional consequences may be more relevant to therapy targets.

The magnitude of significant difference in ACC metabolism is like that of the DLPFC (0.70); however, is only evident between those with no childhood trauma a low levels of childhood trauma.  Interestingly, average ACC metabolism the low childhood trauma group appears significantly lower than that the other groups (Figure 5).  However, examining the plot in comparison to metabolism in the other regions reveals the same general trend in which metabolism of the cohort without childhood trauma is highest on average, and the other cohorts appear to have similar ranges.  In this context, ACC metabolism, like DLPFC metabolism may be sensitive to any level of childhood trauma.

V. Conclusions

It is critically important to examine the effects of CT within MDD, because of the high prevalence of CT within MDD.  Without understanding this relationship, MDD-control comparisons will be confounded by effects of CT.  This may explain equivocal results on structural differences examined in MDD to date.  This study demonstrated functional and structural changes associated with CT and MDD. Among the regions, exhibited both differences in thickness and metabolism with CT, as well as a strong structure/function relationship, suggesting it might be an important treatment target for prevention of MDD following CT.

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Abstract: Coronavirus disease -19 (COVID-19) has gained widespread interest in the field of mathematical epidemiology in order to inform the public on basic statistics surrounding COVID-19. However, the age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs), which adjust age and population discrepancies between different regions by comparing a subpopulation to a standard population, have not been shown publicly. Usually, COVID-19 ASMRs have not been calculated due to the lengthy process required to calculate them; however, ASMRs for COVID-19 have occasionally been calculated, but their effectiveness have been hindered due to the use of a hand-written formula and graphical manual methods. My study involved the development of a deep learning algorithm to calculate ASMR and to instantly graph the ASMR of a subpopulation versus the crude mortality rate of the standard population. This algorithm was used to compare the ASMRs for COVID-19 in American states to the crude mortality rate of the standard population, America. In this study, the algorithm shows efficiency with a consistent runtime of time≤5seconds, within 95% confidence interval error bars among trials. ASMRs show statistically significant differences in expected COVID-19 deaths among most populations. There is at least 95% confidence (p≤0.05) that differences in ASMR are independent of age and population distributions. These findings suggest that there are more factors than just age discrepancy that affect COVID-19 mortality rates.

Keywords: COVID-19, Age-Standardization, Mortality Rate, Algorithm, Deep Learning

I. Introduction

Age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs) are calculated and modeled as a way of comparing a mortality rate of a subpopulation to a standard population by adjusting the subpopulation to match the standard population’s population size and age distribution. Coronavirus disease -19 (COVID-19) is a severe acute respiratory syndrome that has spread to over 100 countries in rapid succession, thus classifying COVID-19 as a global pandemic [1-2,10]. Due to its status as a global pandemic, COVID-19 has received widespread attention in the field of mathematical epidemiology in order to inform the public on basic statistics surrounding COVID-19, such as the number of COVID-19 deaths, infected patients, patients treated in a hospital, patients treated in intensive care units, related infections, and related deaths [3-4].

However, public data sets have been scrutinized for not including more detailed statistics, notably the comparison of COVID-19 deaths in different populations after removing age as a confounding variable [4,6]. In the United States, there has been a lack of age-specific data regarding COVID-19 [9]. ASMRs for COVID-19 have previously been calculated for some regions in the United States; however, their effectiveness have been hindered due to the use of indirect standardization, rather than direct standardization, a formula, and a graphical manual method, which takes considerable time to complete [5,8].

Therefore, a fast and fully functional deep learning computer algorithm that is consistent, is easily debuggable, calculates age-standardized mortality rates, instantaneously graphs newly calculated data, and uses direct age standardization is the most effective and efficient method of adjusting age such that it is no longer a confounding variable. Python–an open source programming language that is precise, is fast, can serve as a calculator, and graph data–would allow for the bypassing of the time-consuming and user-dependent nature of manually calculating and graphing for ASMR [8]. Hence, the Python encoded deep learning algorithm has potential for calculating and graphing ASMR at a high speed. This study proposes the deep learning algorithm, coded in Python, as a revolutionary method of removing the confounding variable of age with high speed and minimal user-dependency. This deep learning algorithm will be used to compare the ASMR for COVID-19 of each subpopulation (state) in the United States to the standard population, the United States as a whole. I present a protocol for the development, reiteration, application, and examination of the deep learning algorithm to provide greater statistical insight into COVID-19. Success in the application of this deep learning algorithm presents a novel, vital ASMR calculating and graphing algorithm.

ASMRs are a vital measure to compare the mortality rates between a subpopulation and a standard population because ASMRs adjust age and population discrepancies between different regions, thus allowing other confounders to be identified within the respective populations [7]. This allows for the removal of age and population differences as confounding variables, which allows for greater capacity to identify other variables leading to the mortality rates. Because of its various benefits, ASMR calculations have been of growing interest in the field of computational and mathematical biology. However, the efficiency of calculating and graphing ASMRs has been hindered in recent years because of the lengthy process of the calculations and because of the manual graphing that must be used in order to visualize the results [5,8]. In its present application, ASMRs are a relatively slow, inefficient method of calculating mortality rates when age is standardized. Therefore, a deep learning algorithm with the ability to instantly calculate and graph the ASMR of a subpopulation when compared to a standard population. This significantly increases the speed and efficiency of calculation and graphing of ASMR.

II. Methodology

Run the Program Using Publicly Available Datasets for the United States

Public datasets will be obtained from the CDC’s Provisional COVID-19 Death Counts by Sex, Age, and State [16]. Population data for each state (subpopulation) and America (standard population) from World Population Review [17]. All datasets information used in this study are updated as of October 28, 2020. The newly developed algorithm will be run to find the age-standardized COVID-19 mortality rate for every state in the United States when compared to the crude COVID-19 mortality rate of the United States. During this phase, I gave the algorithm input (Fig.5): COVID-19 death statistics and population statistics, which the algorithm will use in order to calculate and graph the COVID-19 ASMR and crude COVID-19 mortality rate for the subpopulation and the standard population respectively.

Statistical Significance Analysis: Standard Deviation, Standard Error, and Confidence Interval for ASMR Comparison

In order to identify the significance of the results, statistical tests are to be run. The free version of Google Sheets was used to conduct the statistical tests. First, after identifying the crude COVID-19 mortality rate, the standard deviation is found. Using the standard deviation, the (SEM) is calculated with the sample size being the number of age ranges inputted to the algorithm.. Then, adding ±2SEM gives the error bars. The same process of getting the error bars applies for the subpopulations whose Age-standardized mortality rates are being calculated. If the error bars of the subpopulation and the standard population overlap, then it means that the difference in mortality rate between the two populations is not statistically significant. This would suggest there is 95% confidence that age discrepancy between populations is the only variable affecting COVID-19 mortality rates. Meanwhile, if the two error bars do not overlap, it means that there is 95% confidence that the population with a higher mortality rate is caused to have a higher mortality rate due to a variable other than age discrepancy. Therefore, running the statistical analyses are crucial to ensure that the results are statistically significant.

III. Results

ASMR due to COVID-19 per 100,000 people in each Population

In the ASMR comparison bar graph, the expected number of deaths to COVID-19 per 100,000 people are graphed. The United States, being the standard population, must have the same ASMR as its crude COVID-19 mortality rate of 64.0199. If New York’s population was adjusted for the same size and age distribution as the US, then their mortality rate for COVID-19 per 100,000 people is expected to be 932.0452. By contrast, all other states in this study show less than half the ASMR to COVID-19 per 100,000 people of New York. Primarily, Texas has the ASMR per 100,000 people of 447.5445, followed by Florida with 362.742, followed by California with 253.0757, and lastly followed by the United States with 64.0199.

Expected Number of Deaths due to COVID-19 in each Population Number of Deaths if Adjusted to Standard Population

The data table shown (Fig 9) lists the standard population, the US, as well as the subpopulations, New York, Texas, California, and Florida. After the algorithm from the deep learning computer algorithm was able to calculate the expected number of deaths within each age range of each subpopulation, the expected deaths were summed to provide a total number of expected deaths from each population. Then, the error bars, representing 95% confidence intervals, were calculated by finding ±2SEM. As shown (Fig 9), New York has, by far, the highest expected number of deaths if adjusted to the population size of the United States as well as the age distribution of the United States. By contrast, Florida has the lowest expected deaths when adjusted for age and population.

IV. Discussion

Overall, throughout this study, it was found that the newly developed computer program, with a deep learning algorithm, is successful in its consistency, functionality, efficiency, calculations, and graphing capabilities. Efficiency and consistency of the algorithm was a key focus of this study as shown in Figure 6a and Figure 6b. Efficiency was tested by measuring the runtime of the program. In this study, runtime was defined as the amount of time taken for the program to start running. A common threshold for an efficient program’s runtime is where time (t) is t≤5seconds [12]. As shown in Figure 6a, the algorithm is consistently below the 5.0 second tick mark, which suggests that the program is efficient. Consistency was also tested because 10 runs of the program were made in each of the three trials. As shown in Figure 6b, the mean runtime for the program for each trial was near t=3.5seconds. Furthermore, the error bars, indicating 95% confidence interval, all overlap the other trials’ means and error bars, which means that the difference in each trials’ mean runtime occurred by chance, and that there is no causal agent. Because there is no causal agent that increases the runtime of the program, it shows that the program runs efficiently.

V. Conclusion

In this study, it was hypothesized that variables other than age discrepancies do not have a significant impact on the mortality rate due to COVID-19. However, refuting the initial hypothesis, one of the main findings of this study is that at least one factor other than population size and age distribution had a significant impact on COVID-19 mortality rate in various populations. This is illustrated in ​Figure 10​, where multiple populations are showing statistically significant differences in expected number of COVID-19 deaths once adjusted to the standard population, the United States. Another key finding of this study is that each subpopulation had a higher ASMR than crude mortality rate (​Fig 7, 8​), which shows that each state would have suffered more deaths than the United States if each state was to have the same age distribution as the United States. This supports the idea that statewide deaths are not solely related to age and population, but also preexisting conditions and environment in which the people live [14,15]​.

Another crucial finding in this study is that the deep learning algorithm, within the computer program, is functioning both consistently and efficiently. The efficiency of the algorithm can be seen by its runtime of t≤5seconds (​Fig 6a​). Then, each trial was within the error bars of each other which means that the algorithm has a low runtime consistently because there is no statistically significant difference between the runtime of the algorithm each time it is run (​Fig 6b​). This has strong implications for future use by the public in the form of a publicly available web application.

To refine the conclusions from this study, in regards to studying the impact of age distribution on COVID-19 deaths, more experiments can be done in which more United States states are compared to the standard population of the United States. However, the algorithm is versatile, so the subpopulations and the standard population can be changed entirely to focus on another region. To refine the conclusions about the newly developed computer program, more trials can be conducted to ensure that the runtime found in the first three trials are not outliers, but are representative of the efficiency and consistency of the program.

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Abstract:

In this paper analyzes the conceptual value of the Buddhist teachings of no-self and mindfulness for contemporary activism. First it explores how the doctrine of no-self promotes extended empathy, self-awareness, self-love, and self-care. Second, it explores how the doctrine of mindfulness both resolves some of the organization-related tensions between no-self and activism and provides additional tools for effective activism, as mindfulness promotes embodied care and right action.

The main purpose of this paper was to propose a new philosophical approach to contemporary activism that would address its central problems on personal, interpersonal, and organizational levels.

    Keywords-component; Buddhism; Zen; No-Self; Mindfulness; Activism

I. Introduction  

It may seem counterintuitive to suggest that the Zen Buddhist doctrines of no-self and mindfulness might be effective tools for activism, considering that no-self completely undermines the Western conception of moral agency, and mindfulness promotes an awareness and acceptance of the present and detachment from desire for change. If activism is an organized effort to help others and ourselves in the face of injustice, can that really be achieved without a robust notion of the self and a powerful desire for change?

This paper argues that together, mindfulness and no-self can create a basis for better activism by addressing its central problems on personal, interpersonal, and organizational levels. First, it will be argued that the doctrine of no-self, far from limiting agency, promotes extended empathy, self-awareness, self-love, and self-care. Second, it will be argued that the doctrine of mindfulness both resolves some of the organization-related tensions between no-self and activism and provides additional tools for effective activism, as mindfulness promotes embodied care and right action. In this way, the incorporation of no-self and mindfulness into activism creates a comprehensive new approach to activism that is equipped to combat its main issues.

II. No-Self

Zen Buddhism is based upon a radical doctrine of no-self. Because no single part of what makes up the self can individually be considered the seat of the ego that “selfhood” is a term that, rather than actually defining a real entity, simply acts as a reference to an unfounded conception of ego. [5](Warren 133) In this way, no-self is a valuable conceptual tool for activism.

A. Extended Empathy

First, no-self promotes extended empathy because the practitioner of no-self is unable to make an ontological distinction between the suffering of others and their own suffering, which in turn becomes a trigger for advocacy and cooperation among activists.

One could argue that no-self will not adequately extend empathy to distant others, as being informed of suffering at the other end of the world will not have the same effect as seeing someone suffering in front of you. However, it logically follows from the doctrine of no-self that we are not a self experiencing others but rather a being experiencing itself. [3](Tanahashi 69) In this way, no-self cannot favor empathy for the suffering of “near others” over “distant others”, as according to this doctrine there is no “other” at all.

B. Self-Knowledge

Second, no-self entails a detachment that not only allows individuals to engage with the world with the same care with which they engage with themselves, but also to engage with themselves with the same honest with which they engage with the world. no-self leads to self-awareness which is actualized through a recognition of privilege and an intersectional approach to activism. Introspection becomes outwardly inclusive when the “potential of inner-subjective diversity” - that is to say, the power of acknowledging the “multiplicity” of individual experiences creates an inclusive activism. [2](Kalmanson 817)

It could be argued that such an intersectional approach will not necessarily strengthen an activist movement, because giving equal weight to all experiences might undermine the purpose of a movement by shifting the focus, or accidentally promoting contradictory goals. However, intersectionality is the only way to effectively achieve any goal. For instance, if the goal of the feminist movement is gender equality, then it logically follows that it should work to dismantle oppressive norms and systems that subjugate women. Not all women experience the oppressive norms and systems in the same way, based on individual circumstances, and so will present a multiplicity of experience. If we are to reject an intersectional approach, it follows that there must be one accepted form of womanhood, and so resistance will only happen along those lines – and almost always, the standard is set by the most powerful within that group and excludes many other experiences. As such, the doctrine of no-self may be a critical tool to facilitating an intersectional approach to activism – an approach that is not only helpful, but also arguably necessary.

C. Self-Love

Third, the doctrine of no-self facilitates radical self-love, which in turn becomes a tool to counter internalized disvalues. Though it may seem ironic that no-self would promote self-love, acceptance of the multiplicity and change of identity, and so leads to greater self-love as there is no longer a need to fit a self- or societally-imposed narrative of identity. Kalmanson has identified the aesthetic value of rejecting a fixed self, and argues that recognizing of the value of multiplicity and change is potentially liberatory. [2](Kalmanson 818) Not only does this rejection of a single self be beautiful in itself, but it allows one to see the beauty in oneself in one’s particularity, and as a constantly shifting and infinitely faceted becoming. This self-acceptance is key to activism because a greater acceptance of oneself dismantles internalized oppression on a micro scale and validates a struggle for justice.

One possible objection to the utility of self-love in activism is that self-love may blind people to their faults, making them inefficient and potentially even counterproductive activists. If self-love is not conditional upon doing good, but rather naturally follows from no-self, then it seems that there is no mechanism to revoke this love, and so there is no emotional consequence to doing something wrong. However, if paired with self-awareness, which requires constant contextual evaluation of experience, self-love can nonetheless be a valuable tool. Promoting self-love does not imply that one should have a preference for oneself; it is simply another way to be able to see the beauty and faults in all perspectives, especially those that are in constant flux.  

D. Self-Care

Fourth, no-self promotes self-care to prevent burnout and martyrdom in activists. Successful and ethical activism should protect those who engage in it, especially because often those who are engaged in fighting for justice are those who most affected by the injustice. To this end, no-self can be employed to promote self-care. Insofar as an activist’s goal is to rectify injustice and a practitioner of no-self should have no preference for self over other or, crucially, for other over self, then an activist should give themselves the same care they give to others.

It could be argued that activists practicing self-care may be a detriment to their cause as presumably activists are in a more powerful position than those they advocate for, and so any act of self-care maintains this power dynamic. However, regardless of whether or not activists are more powerful than those they aim to protect, self-care is still an important tool for activism. Firstly, because if an activist has more power than those they are defending, they will not necessarily be cared for in the same way they care for others. And secondly, because they are more likely to know what they need and address their needs accordingly, thus using their limited time and energy in a way that is more likely to be efficient. Therefore, self-care as facilitated by no-self is vital to sustainable activism.

Because it leads to extended empathy, self-awareness, self-love, and self-care, no-self is a valuable tool for rethinking activism to make it more efficient, inclusive, and sustainable. However, despite its many benefits, no-self is not sufficient on its own to radically improve activism because it cannot be used as a guide for action or as a tool for organization, both of which are essential parts of effective activism. At the very least, even if no-self does not impede agency, it is only helpful in addressing the more theoretical aspects of activism. In order to complement this discussion of no-self, one must turn to the potential role of mindfulness in efficient activism.

III. Mindfulness

   In order to achieve enlightenment, Buddha proposed the Eightfold Path, of which one of the steps is "right mindfulness", which entails being fully attentive to one's experience in every moment. In addition to the benefits of applying the no-self doctrine to activism, mindfulness is a useful tool for activism because it promotes the application of embodied care and the prioritization of right action, both of which are helpful to guiding action and organization in activist movements.

A. Embodied Care

Mindfulness can be a useful tool in facilitating responsible and effective activism by promoting embodied care. Embodied care consists in being fully mindful while engaging in care, so that we are more responsible in our actions, thus maximizing our impact while limiting unconscious repetition of damaging behaviors, such as microaggressions. [1](Butnor 422) A mindful approach to activism would therefore allow activists to do the most good and the least harm, and takes into account one’s behavior instead of just one’s goals, which encourages a much deeper and more purposeful engagement with one’s experience and values.

One serious objection to the relevance of embodied care in activism is that such a sensitive awareness of the world, and particularly of others, is not possible for everyone. For instance, embodied care may not be accessible to all individuals on the autism spectrum, which seriously limits its applicability in all areas of activism, but especially when it comes to activism with the goal of promoting the rights of neurodivergent individuals (i.e. those whose mental state is consistently divergent from the norm through mental illness, etc.). However, even if some individuals are less capable of engaging mindfully with all of their surroundings and so less capable of engaging in embodied care, it is still a valuable tool for activism. Embodied care does not require reciprocity to work, except insofar as it is easier to care for others that also care for you. Because of this, just because some people may be less capable of engaging in this way does not meant that it will be a less valuable tool for those that are willing and capable.

B. Right Action

Mindfulness is also a path towards consistently right action. For the mindful activist, the end cannot justify the means, as all actions must be both appropriate and effective. [4](Uebel & Shorkey 221) In this way, mindful activism holds its practitioners to a higher standard of awareness. Not only will this prevent the justification of morally questionable behavior, but it will also require that activists with the same goals act in compatible ways, because mindful activism values being concretely aware over being abstractly “better”.

Though one could argue that this approach to activism makes long-term planning and cohesive vision difficult, mindful activism is actually beneficial in the long-term and facilitates the creation of a cohesive vision across differences. First, mindfulness paired with no-self not only facilitates communication across differences but actually requires it, making activism more effective and inclusive as discussions will be ego-less. Second, long-term planning is not necessarily a problem for mindful activism because part of mindfulness includes a particular awareness of the present moment in which the present moment encompasses all of time. [3](Tanahasi 77 §4) As such, one is always aware of the future is always but one can never override situational appropriateness.

Acknowlegement

   The author gratefully acknowledges and thanks Dr. Ian Sullivan for his eye-opening perspective on the practical applications of Buddhist thought and for his support.

References

[1] Butnor, Ashby. 2014. “Dogen, Feminism, and the Embodied Practice of Care”. In Asian and Feminist Philosophies in Dialogue, ed. Jennifer McWeeny and Ashby Butnor.

[2] Kalmanson, Leah. “Buddhism and bell hooks: Liberatory Aesthetics and the Radical Subjectivity of No-Self.” Hypatia Vol. 27, No. 4 (2012): 810–827.

[3] Tanahashi Kazuaki, trans. 1985. Moon in a dewdrop: Writings of Zen master Dōgen. New York: North Point.

[4] Uebel, Michael, and Shorkey, Clayton. 2014. "Mindfulness and Engaged Buddhism: Implications for a Generalist Macro Social Work Practice". In Mindfulness and Acceptance in Social Work: Evidence-Based Interventions and Emerging Applications, ed. Matthew S. Boone: 215-234. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

[5] Warren, Henry Clarke. 2005. “There is no ego”. Buddhism in Translations: 129-146. New York: Cosimo Classics.

Abstract: The human mind has long been a mystery, able to disguise the most rotten characters from public scrutiny. Killers like Ted Bundy, Jeffrey Dahmer, John Wayne Gacy, and Ed Gein, were all once perceived as normal, even exceptional, in society’s eyes. Though we tend to focus on their evil deeds, we do not often ask ourselves why, or how, these individuals decided to become the despicable, infamous serial killers they are known as today. To better understand how potential perpetrators become full fledged killers, scientists dove deep into the psychology behind the outer persona, discovering similar genes in the brain and traumatic childhood events of such individuals who may exhibit proclivities for future violent tendencies. A combination of neuroscience and psychology studies have revealed the underlying clues  that any average person can become a bloodthirsty serial killer. While they may be able to keep up a calm, charismatic exterior and easily blend into our society, they may be capable of hunting down the vulnerable to satisfy their own sick, twisted desires.

Keywords: MAOA, serotonin chromosome, psychopath, psychotic, sociopath

I. Introduction

Jim Fallon’s Ted Talk, “Exploring the Mind of a Killer,” offered a plethora of scientific information about both the mind of a serial killer and recent findings in neuroscience. Specifically, he talked in depth about the Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) violence gene that is commonly found in killers. In this paper, I will discuss his scientific findings along with other external factors that affect the psyche of  these murderous human beings otherwise described as psychopaths. According to Fallon ,  a neuroscientist at the University of California, over 90% of convicted serial killers are observed to have a particular gene that triggers violent behaviors. This gene, known as MAOA, has different variations.  Moreover, . the MAOA enzyme,coded by the MAOA gene, catabolizes serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Some researchers have concluded that low MAOA density in certain regions of the brain may contribute to psychopathology but further research still needs to be done (Kolla 2017).  Others have focused on studies that show youth having a long allele of the serotonin transporter gene in the presence of environmental stress can exhibit interpersonal and affective traits of psychopathy (Sadeh et al. 2013).  In this paper, I will focus mainly on the influence of serotonin which is . a chemical produced by nerve cells, sending signals across those cells, otherwise known as a neurotransmitter. In the case of psychopathy, serotonin’s most important function is to regulate mood and social behaviors. A lack of serotonin, therefore, will offset the psychological balance of the human brain.

II. GENETIC MAKEUP AND NEUROSCIENTIFIC PATTERNS

The MAOA enzyme is a mitochondrial enzyme that is encoded by the x-chromosome linked MAOA gene.  MAOA can determine aspects of human personality and thereby can increase the risk for personality disorders. Variations in the MAOA gene and the MAOA enzyme levels have been linked to antisocial behavior and aggression (Kolla 2017). Furthermore, low MAOA density in regions of the brain may contribute to psychopathology although environmental influences must also be considered..  Researchers have found that males displayed signs of extraversion of this gene at age 16, which continued to develop through their late 20s. This result was expected, as most genetic effects, especially those of more complex traits, are most strongly developed during the late childhood and early adulthood years.  (Xu et al 2019.). 

The MAOA gene is only one of two main factors that contribute to the makings of a future serial killer. An extra amount of serotonin in the brain during developing stages is also a factor. Ironically, normal amounts of serotonin are supposed to make the human body calm down. However, combined with the MAOA gene, the brain overloaded with serotonin, can eventually become insensitive to this chemical. This is equivalent to having a car without brakes causing desires in the brain to run wild without any mechanism to stop them from spiralling out of control.

Xu et al. (2019) expounds on this important point in their study, “Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Gene and Personality Traits from Late Adolescence through Early Adulthood: A Latent Variable Investigation.”, The data in this experiment aligns with the statistics presented by Michaud and Aynesworth, successfully tying together the neuroscience and psychological portions of my paper.

Both these factors are phenotypes, genetic information that has not yet been expressed externally, in behavior or on the human body. In the book The Only Living Witness, Michaud and Aynesworth are a reporter and an investigator team reveal -that all killers need a trigger, most times taking the form of a traumatic childhood event (environmental factors) that results in physical damage to the brain. 74% of serial killers underwent mental abuse and 42% underwent physical abuse during their childhood years. Most likely, those events leave the child prone to injury, with 29% of convicted serial killers having suffered some sort of head trauma. Children mimic what they see, with their mental states not yet fully developed. With 43% of future killers suffering through sexual abuse and 35% witnessing such acts as a child, it is no surprise that those unforunate children grow up to be the monsters they’ve suffered under all those years. To block out childhood trauma, most killers in turn develop psychopathic behaviors as a coping mechanism (Michaud 2012). 

III. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF INFAMOUS KILLERS

The term ‘psychopath’ is commonly misunderstood among the general public; most people seem to associate it with crazy, or disarray, the complete opposite of the true definition. Psychopaths cannot feel love, but they can have strong feelings over their possessions. James Blair,claims that psychopaths are extremely good at hiding their tendencies and dark urges, able to blend in with society as just another normal member (Blair 2013); this often comes as a shock to most. 

Blair (2013) introduces a new concept toreaders by highlighting the point that psychopaths are often inaccurately depicted as crazy, visibly unstable people and that society has the misconception they behave in accordance to this myth  in real life. Blair explores the truth behind psychopathy, offering information that most people have never thought about. Blair  claims psychopathy is easy to hide.  He had also previously noted that psychopaths can be insensitive to cues of punishment as well as insensitive to others in distress which is relevant and important to the underlying discussion in this paper.The most horrifying fact is that psychopaths understand how charismatic they can be, thereby using their charm as  their modus operandi. In his book The Encyclopedia of Serial Killers Second Edition, author Michael Newton comments that  those “predators in human form” who have long been hidden in society, are invisible to the naked eye until they strike. Newton’etail about the lives of infamous killers.  He goes into depth about the influencing aspects in these psychopaths’ lives that played a role in shaping them into who they become. For example, he noted parental abuse, and head trauma as two common factors that many killers shared.

One of the main factors that is emphasized by Newton is the extent of their “psychopathic charm”. Ted Bundy wore fake casts to appear weaker in front of unsuspecting young women (Brogaard 2012)(Newton 2006). Jeffrey Dahmer coaxed his victims into a drunken state before having his way with them (Michaud 2012). Edward Gein was well known around his town as the “helpful man,” successfully using his reputation to cover up what happened behind closed doors (Newton 2006). These psychopaths often understand the extent of their heinous crimes, and yet feel no remorse when caught. 

In the Ted Bundy tapes, for example, the famed killer chatted with the interviewer as if they were old buddies, completely ignoring the current circumstances. By observing different patterns in human interactions around them, psychopaths are able to mimic those actions, allowing them to appear perfectly sane to the eyes of the public (Michaud 2019)(Newton 2006). The live, broadcasted interview with infamous serial killer Ted Bundy proved how “normal” murderers can act. Even with all the cameras, Bundy was still able to hold a clear, casual conversation with the interviewer, as if they were friends. It’s not often that we get to observe the actions of a killer, and this is one of those rare moments in history that contains a dark, rotten core. However, seeing Bundy’s casual behavior supported my previous claims in the paper about psychopathic traits and how easily they can be hidden from the public.

Blair (2001) has suggested that reduced amygdala functioning is a key biological factor in psychopathy.  This supports the finding made by Hariri et al (2002) in using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to explore the connection between genetic variation in the serotonin transporter gene and brain activity.  It has been suggested  by Heinz et al. (2005) that the genetic variants of the serotonin transporter gene  are linked to the amygdala functioning.  Furthermore, the reduction in amygdala activity in the presence of a long allele of serotonin transporter gene appears to suggest a potential risk factor for development of psychopathic traits (Glenn 2011).

While only some serial killers may exhibit manipulative psychopathic behaviors, most of them are also ‘psychotics,’ a completely different classification from ‘psychopathic.’ Berit Brogaard, a PhD and director of the multisensory research at the University of Miami, further explores the psychotic traits in her article “The Making of a Serial Killer: Possible Social Causes of Psychopathology.” Though there are overlaps, such as “blunted emotions,” psychotics lack a touch with reality, existing in a constant state of hallucination, not aware of their surroundings (Brogaard 2012). They may hear a voice in their head, continuously force feeding them false ideologies about the world around them, motivating them to commit unspeakable deeds. With this given information, unsurprisingly most convicted serial killers have been diagnosed with psychotic diseases, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, both of which negatively impact the mental state of the human brain.

IV. CONCLUSION

Serial killers do not simply pop out of the womb feeling murderous; there are many factors throughout their lives that impact the way they think, act, and feel around others. While these traumatic events should not make society feel any sympathy for those who take the lives of others, it is interesting to piece together similarities that change a normal human to a cold-blooded killer.

One factor in explaining this complex disorder may be hidden in the brain and the MAOA enzyme.  Specifically, along with a broad spectrum of environmental influences are the epigenetic factors that may determine the decreased activity of MAOA and long allele of serotonin transporter gene..

REFERENCES

Blair, R. J., Colledge, E., Murray, L., & Mitchell, D. G. (2001). A selective impairment in the processing of sad and fearful expressions in children with psychopathic tendencies. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 29(6), 491–498. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1012225108281

Blair R. J. (2013). Psychopathy: cognitive and neural dysfunction. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 15(2), 181–190.

Brogaard, B. (2012, December). The Making of a Serial Killer. Psychology Today. www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-superhuman-mind/201212/the-making-serial-killer. 

Fallon, Jim. “Exploring the Mind of a Killer.” TED, 2009,www.ted.com/talks/jim_fallon_exploring_the_mind_of_a_killer?language=en.

Glenn A. L. (2011). The other allele: exploring the long allele of the serotonin transporter gene as a potential risk factor for psychopathy: a review of the parallels in findings. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 35(3), 612–620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.005

Kolla, N. J., & Vinette, S. A. (2017). Monoamine Oxidase A in Antisocial Personality Disorder and Borderline Personality Disorder. Current behavioral neuroscience reports, 4(1), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40473-017-0102-0

Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., Goldman, D., Egan, M. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science (New York, N.Y.), 297(5580), 400–403. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1071829

Heinz, A., Braus, D. F., Smolka, M. N., Wrase, J., Puls, I., Hermann, D., Klein, S., Grüsser, S. M., Flor, H., Schumann, G., Mann, K., & Büchel, C. (2005). Amygdala-prefrontal coupling depends on a genetic variation of the serotonin transporter. Nature neuroscience, 8(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1366

Michaud, SG, Aynesworth H. The Only Living Witness: the True Story of Serial Sex Killer Ted Bundy. Irving, TX: Authorlink Press, an imprint of Authorlink; 2012.

Michaud, SG. Conversations with a Killer: The Ted Bundy Tapes. [Documentary]. USA: Netflix; 2019.

Newton, M. The Encyclopedia of Serial Killers. New York: Facts On File; 2006.

Sadeh N, Javdani S, Verona E. Analysis of monoaminergic genes, childhood abuse, and dimensions of psychopathy. J Abnorm Psychol. 2013;122(1):167‐179. doi:10.1037/a0029866

Xu, K., Gaysina, D., Tsonaka, R., Morin, A., Croudace, T., Barnett, J., Houwing-Duistermaat, J., Richards, M., Jones, P., & The LHA Genetics Group (2017). Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Gene and Personality Traits from Late Adolescence through Early Adulthood: A Latent Variable Investigation. Frontiers in Psychologie, 8(1736), [1736]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01736

Abstract: Abstract This project applies a new theory in the field of intergroup conflict known as "Gateway group theory," which posits that to decrease conflict between two groups, a third group with specific characteristics that appeal to both sides needs to be identified, enabling them to act as a medium. This group is known as a "Gateway group." With the background of the bitter digital divide and echo chambers plaguing the United States’ current political discourse, this paper sought to find the Gateway group between polar Democrats and Republicans on Twitter. This project data mined and examined the shared “likes” of these two populations using originally developed code and definitional parameters. Then, the study analyzed the profiles of the authors of these liked Tweets to compile an aggregated Gateway group profile that can be used to find Gateway group individuals on Twitter who have the ability to decrease conflict between Democrats and Republicans. The study found that Gateway group members exist. They are a group of Moderate Democrats. Every post that was liked by both a Democrat and Republican was also tagged and analyzed for similarities in content. It was found that 55% of all posts referenced “Trump” and 92% of those votes had a negative sentiment. Additional similarities in content were found, for example a keen interest in elections and certain Democratic candidates. This project develops an effective methodology that can be applied to any conflict on Twitter to find the Gateway group for that conflict to decrease polarity between polar groups.

Keywords: Gateway group theory, Democrat and Republican, political discourse, Twitter

I. Introduction

In 2016, The New York Times opinion columnist Lee Drutman penned an op-ed titled “The Divided States of America.” He commented on the fact that local elections were blowouts for one party or another, and instead of being a one two-party nation, America had devolved into two one-party nations. Current elected officials are more polar than they have been in decades because voter bases are more polar. In September of 2017, eight months into the Trump presidency, the Pew Research Center released a report which found that 75% of Republicans had negative views of Democrats and 70% of Democrats have negative views of Republicans. This was a large increase from the mid-1990s, when about 20% of the members of each party held unfavorable views for the other. These sentiments came to a boil during the confirmation hearing of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court. According to a CNN national survey, 91% of Democrats opposed Kavanugh’s confirmation while 89% of Republicans supported it. This project attempts to find a middle ground between the two groups -- perhaps a way back to “We” the People -- using applications of social psychology and computer science. All conflict is a result of two or more groups disagreeing with each other on a fact, principle, or idea. The more divided, the greater the conflict. One of the guiding theories in intergroup contact and conflict is the Common Ingroup Identity Model. Broadly defined, an ingroup consists of members with similar beliefs, and an outgroup is a group with the conflicting ideology. At its core, the model states that if members of conflicting groups would think of themselves as belonging to a singular larger group with shared values and perceptions, they would have more positive beliefs, feelings, and behaviors toward one another. The key notion and guiding principle of the Common Ingroup Identity Model is that successfully integrating ingroup and outgroup members into a one-group through a shared identity can reduce feelings of racism or friction between the two groups (Gaertner and Dovidio, 2012). One study found that if individuals faced certain similar stressors, they were more likely to develop “we feelings,” which caused them to act as a single common group (Dovidio and Morris, 1975). The Common Ingroup Identity Model, and theory of increased contact leading to a decrease in prejudice, has been quantified. Pettigrew and Tropp (2006) conducted a meta 2 analysis of 515 studies from 38 countries and found that 94% of them showed this negative correlation. Studies in Italy, Germany, Northern Ireland and the U.S. demonstrate that simply having ingroup friends who have outgroup friends can diminish prejudice (Pettigrew et. al, 2011). This is interesting because it proves that even proving that indirect contact can have an effect on the polarization of two groups, an idea that will be explored further in this paper. The key idea of the Common Ingroup Identity Model is that the characteristics that ingroup members use to connect with other ingroup members need to be expanded to the outgroup to create a connection between the two and form a larger unitary group (Gaertner et al., 1993). Thus, more positive beliefs, feelings, and behaviors, which are usually reserved for ingroup members, are extended or redirected to former outgroup members because of their recategorized ingroup status. Gaertner et. al. (1993) furthers that consequently, recategorization changes the intergroup dynamic as an “us” versus “them” orientation to a more inclusive “we”. Once people regard former outgroup members as ingroup members, the conflict can then start to diminish and even be resolved because the behavior of the two groups changes and it is, in effect, one large ingroup (Gaertner and Dovidio, 2012). This last finding has been reexamined in recent years and has evolved into the Gateway Group theory. Gateway groups are members of both an ingroup and an outgroup. They are defined as groups that can be characterized by “unique social categorizations that enables them to be categorized as and identified with more than one group in the context of intergroup relations” (Levy et. al., 2017). In other words, they share key characteristics of each group and recent research suggests their existence and role can be crucial. Having multiple identities could bridge the gap between two completely separate groups without shared identities. In the United States, for example, the rise of a multiracial (African American and Caucasian) group poses the interesting question of whether their existence can help repair race relations (Levy et. al., 2017). Gateway groups can exist in multiple forms and capacities. Currently, the most important and relevant work on Gateway groups explores the issue of dual identity. Dual identity is a subgroup of a population that also identifies with another group (Dovidio, et. al., 2009). In the context of ingroup conflict, people with dual identities share characteristics with both an ingroup and an outgroup. Combined with the Common Ingroup Identity Model, the existence of common 3 groups could imply that those people could be used to create common identities, but still have two distinct groups. In other words, a Gateway group could bring together groups to decrease conflict but the additional step of creating one “we” group wouldn’t be necessary. The most important part of Gateway Group theory is that Gateway groups have been proven to decrease conflict. According to research by Hornsey and Hogg (2000), different groups with different identities have more bias towards one another. However, upon the introduction of Gateway groups, the amount of intergroup bias between the two groups actually decreased because the two groups felt more related, which supports the Common Ingroup Identity Model. The majority of research so far has been theoretical, as this theory is relatively new. And -- when gateway groups have been involved in experimentation, they have been defined before the experiment. This paper will take the opposite approach. First, it will define the two ingroups, and then examine who the Gateway group is and what are its defining characteristics. There is another key difference between past exploration of Gateway Groups and their impact on conflict reduction and what this paper is interested in examining, and it relates to the arena of the conflict. Previous studies involving Gateway groups have only examined the introductions of Gateway groups into real-world, corporal conflicts. However, conflict has increasingly been migrating from the physical world to the virtual. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter have been the battlegrounds of current ideological wars. So that is where this research chooses to focus. With large amounts of data available, and many recent studies into the use of data to gather information about people, social media is an optimal source of information for this paper. Several recent studies have deduced physical traits and characteristics of humans in the physical world using their online behavior – their likes and follows. For example, an analysis of the “likes” of people on social media was an accurate source to trace certain characteristics. One study correctly identified homosexual and heterosexual men in 88% of cases, African Americans and Caucasian Americans in 95% of cases, and accurately sorted Democrat and Republican in 85% of cases, all based on a thumbs-up “like” (Kosinski et. al., 2013). Other factors that could be identified, with relative degrees of accuracy, were Openness, Agreeability, Extroversion, and Density of Friendship Network (on Facebook). On Twitter, one way of determining political polarity is by comparing the number of Democrats versus the number of Republicans that users 4 follow (Demszky et. al., 2019). The analysis of likes and tweets demonstrates the relative ease researchers can create profiles of random users with a high degree of accuracy. So, extrapolating from that, how would one define an ingroup online? On social media, people with similar views tend to comment, share, They serve as amplifiers for the same viewpoints, in essence, an echo chamber. Another term for this would be: an ingroup. Bessi (2016) argues that these echo chambers are problematic due to the fact that discussion with like-minded peers only increases polarization towards an outgroup (Zollo et. al., 2015). His key finding was that users would undergo a positive selection bias, by which they partook in groups that were aligned with their own beliefs, joining polarized virtual communities in the process. Additionally, in these insular bubbles, blatantly or deliberately false information is received as fact, which can be extremely dangerous because Bessi found that as ideas became more conspiratorial and radical, more people shared them in the same social media group, and more of it was taken as fact. The online world has created some of the most rigidly defined polar in and out groups. In the context of this study, the echo chambers will be formed by two conflicting polar political groups who have negative attitudes towards each other on Twitter. The overall hypothesis of this study is that by analyzing the shared Tweet likes of these two groups a profile of an online Gateway group on Twitter can be synthesized and used to decrease the effect of the online political echo chamber in the future.

II. Methods

This analysis will answer two different questions that have not been scientifically answered in the realm of intergroup conflict studies. The target population is a group of Democrats and Republicans on the social media platform Twitter. The end goal is to apply social psychology -- specifically Gateway Group Theory as defined below -- to identify what factors contribute to a decrease in the effect of political echo chambers on social media and beyond. A new theory in the intergroup contact branch of social psychology called Gateway Group (GG) Theory modifies the received notion that polarization could only be decreased through direct contact between the two groups. GGs are people with connections to both, and GG theory states 5 that their mere existence leads to decreased polarization. Given that this is a relatively new theory, the few previous experimental applications looked at a specific predefined GG and explored its effects on the target populations. This experiment differs in two key ways. First, it explores GGs in social media and determines if their effects in the physical world parallel those in the digital world; and second, its goal is to define the GG based on parameters derived from social media activity (Twitter). This contrasts with previous studies which have started knowing what their GG is, and then measured its effects on a target population. This experiment will have four separate parts. The first is data collection round one, the second is analysis, the third is data collection round two, and the fourth is overall analysis. Every step of this project was completed with originally developed Python code created specifically for this research. The online setting will be preserved as it is crucial that the observed natural interactions are untampered. A prerequisite to data collection is the definition of operational variables. A random sampling of Twitter users will be taken using the Twitter API. The users will be selected based on the number of current members of the 116th United States Congress they follow. Users who follow more than 25 Congresspeople will be included in the set. To determine their level of political polarity, the number of politicians they follow from one party will be divided from the other to determine the net polarity. For example, if a person follows ten Democrats but only two Republicans they will have a net ratio of 5 Dem. This is important because it sets the context for the rest of the study, as all users must be labeled beforehand. The next part of the study analyzes shared likes. The data set will be divided into quintiles based on users’ polarity ratios. The fifth quintile will be the highest “Democrat” ratio, or the most polar Democrats, and the first quintile will have the highest “Republican” ratio, or the most polar Republicans. Using this, the last 200 likes of 400 users in the first quintile will be compared to the last 200 likes of 400 users in the fifth quintile. A list of “political” terms was created in order to filter tweet content so only political tweets are evaluated. Political terms include (but are not limited to): “impeach”, “vote”, “President”, “immigration”, and “election”. Every time the users like the same post, the post and the user who posted it will be filed away. 6 This profile is a Gateway person because they attracted likes from the opposite ends of the spectrum. First, the profiles will be collected and using the Twitter API, their important characteristics will be put into the RapidMiner TurboPrep and Auto Modeler Software and that will determine the most prevalent characteristics for a Gateway group. The characteristics that will be evaluated will be user location, how many followers the user has, how many friends the user has, the number of Tweets the user has liked, and how many times the user has Tweeted or retweeted. Second, the posts that receive likes from both Democrats and Republicans will be tagged and will be matched against the list of political words, most of which are topic areas (i.e. elections, immigration, impeach, metoo) to see what subjects appear most often. Additionally, the profiles of the Gateway Groups will be evaluated in the same manner the original Democrats and Republicans were classified -- by using the politicians they followed as the metric for determining polarity. The purpose of this is to better understand who these people are in the context of Twitter.

III. Results

The analysis of the shared likes was fruitful in gathering data on Gateway groups. First and foremost, the 800 polar users analyzed had thousands of shared likes with each other, and 155 active “Gateway people” were identified. The individual numerical characteristics (friends, followers, favorites (Tweets liked), Tweets) of the profiles are listed in Table 1 below. For each of these, the data column was broken into quintiles and the upper and lower bounds of the third quintile was taken as the range of values. The Tweets that received the shared likes were analyzed for content. The two most prevalent Tweet topics were “Trump” and “election”/ “vote”. “Trump” was mentioned in 55% of the Tweets, and “election”/“vote” was mentioned in 13% of all Tweets. In the case of “Trump” Tweets, 92% had a negative sentiment. Additional recurring topics included “impeach” (10%), “war” (9%), and “kurds”/“turkey”/“syria” (4%).

Contrary to the narrative of a hopelessly divided America, especially online, this paper finds that the most polarized Democrats and Republicans do share likes on Twitter of certain third party accounts. In other words, they won’t see or share or like each other’s Tweets but will both see, share, and occasionally like the Tweets of a third subset of people on the platform. So the most important finding of this project is therefore that Gateway groups on Twitter do, in fact, exist. This is thanks to the novel application of weak link theory (Goyal, 2005) based on the methodology of using shared likes to determine the existence of a Gateway group. No previous study about Gateway groups has not known who Gateway group was in advance of the study. 9 They have all studied the effect of predefined Gateway groups on predefined target populations. This is also the first time Gateway groups are explored within the virtual, rather than physical, world. Those previous studies established that Gateway groups deescalate conflict. This is valuable information because a following experiment to this study should be to use this aggregated profile to find users who fit it on Twitter, and introduce them into the feeds of polar Republicans and Democrats and observe the effect of depolarization. So what is the profile of a Gateway group that can bridge polarized Republicans and Democrats on Twitter? The data reveals certain repetitive characteristics, starting with location. Approximately one-third of the users were from the Northeastern United States (including Washington, D.C.). On Twitter, these users have amassed a large following -- the median range of followers was in the hundred thousands. They have many more followers than people they follow. They are prolific Tweeters -- the median number of Tweets they generate is in the tens of thousands. Combined, this reveals that in order to appeal to multiple sides, they need to populate the feeds of their many followers constantly. Probably the most important finding in the context of the characteristics is the political affiliation and relative degree of polarity of Gateway group members in comparison to the overall political spectrum on Twitter. To provide context, the polarity of the sample Democrats and Republicans overall (i.e. not the Gateway group) was in the high tens, low hundreds, which meant that for every 100 Democrats or Republicans they followed, they followed one member of the opposite party. The Gateway groups in comparison were much more moderate. The average follow ratio of the Gateway groups was 3 Democrats for every 1 Republican. The breakdown of the Gateway profiles’ political affiliation was also interesting: 87.74% of the profiles were either Democratic or Neutral. Only 12.26% of the users were Republicans. This uniquely places these Gateway group members in a political context and who they are in relation to Democrats and Republicans becomes clearer. By and large they are Moderate Democrats. This data can have an interesting real-world application: Moderate Democrats evoke more positive reactions from the staunch liberals and staunch conservatives than do Moderate Republicans; the average “Republican” Gateway profile only followed 2 Republicans for every 1 Democrat (even more moderate and closer to the center than the average Gateway). In the 10 context of the current political reality, the fact that Moderate Democrats specifically are able to bridge the divide between the extremes with political content is a critical finding. One application of this finding is that it supports the argument that in 2020, the Democratic Party should strongly consider nominating a Moderate Democrat to run for President because they have the best chance of building a coalition of Democrats and Republicans. The idea of Moderate Democrats as a Gateway group is also borne out through the examination of the actual names of the Twitter account holders. While the names of Gateway profiles were not sought for in the data, the code written to extract profile information also provided the names of the Gateway people. While most of them were not household names, there were a few known personalities. Not surprisingly, they were politicians. The two Democratic candidates who appeared the most in the shared likes pool were Tulsi Gabbard and Joe Biden. Biden has claimed the role of the Moderate Democratic candidate in the 2020 Democratic Primary race. Gabbard, who is more controversial, is running on a platform that mixes ideas from the right and the left. So while not a classical “Moderate,” her overall aggregated profile is that of a Centrist. Both these candidates received more than double the shared likes than the next Democratic candidate, Elizabeth Warren, who is perceived to be much farther to the left. While this paper is not endorsing a Gabbard or Biden candidacy, it does suggest that whomever runs against President Trump should not skew too far to the left on policy, but rather stay centric and build a large enough support base from both sides to win the election. Within the vast number of people who follow Gateway groups, there are polar Democrats and Republicans who actively like the Gateway group’s content, and because only political Tweets were examined in this study, that opens the door to more discourse and exposure to content that is not necessarily within the confines of their respective echo chambers. The content Tweeted about and liked spanned many topics. To better understand what was Tweeted, the data was sorted by keywords. The highest-occurring keyword in the data was “Trump”, appearing in 55% of the Tweets. But more telling was the fact that 92% of these Tweets were negative. This is partially expected and partially surprising. That polar liberals are not enamored with President Trump is not surprising, but it is interesting that many polar conservatives like content that is critical of the President: these negative Tweets Tweeted by Moderate Democrats were also liked 11 by polar Republicans. This raises an interesting question: if a Moderate Democrat does run, would some polar Republicans abandon President Trump to vote for that candidate? The point of this paper is not to dole out political advice to any one party, but rather to explore ways to reduce the digital divide that plagues our political culture and national discourse. Now that we have established the existence and profile of Gateway group members on Twitter, we must explore their role and how to amplify it. First of all, according to Gateway Group Theory, their mere organic existence suggests the ability to reduce conflict. There are also a few steps that could be taken proactively to increase their influence. Currently, the majority of the Gateway group members are Democrats. These Democrats have not actively become Gateway persons (they don’t think of themselves as such or even know they belong to a unique group that decreases polarization on Twitter), rather, their online activity makes them so. But there is actually an ingroup and an outgroup dynamic occurring within the Gateway group, where Democrats are the ingroup and Republicans the outgroup. And while this paper deals with Gateway Group theory, the Common Ingroup Identity Model still holds true. The Background Section explained that a key idea of the Common Ingroup Identity Model is that the characteristics that ingroup members use to connect with other ingroup members need to be expanded to the outgroup to create a connection between the two and form a larger unitary group, changing the dynamic from “us” vs “them” to “we.” In this case, the “we” is the Gateway group. If these Gateway Democrats actively followed more Republicans and started to increase the similarities in Tweet content, more Republicans could be made a part of the Gateway and consequently increase the scope of its influence. These Gateway groups could ultimately decrease the echo-chambers. Unfortunately, this cannot be mandated or achieved artificially. But one idea is to encourage the platform to design algorithms that would recommend Gateway group members to polar Republican or Democratic users (platforms routinely recommend additional accounts to follow.) As this study shows, Twitter, which is often seen as the source of so much of the polarity in contemporary US political discourse, can actually become the vehicle for reducing that polarity. This via Gateway Twitter members deliberately reaching out to those beyond their current sphere of shared followers, for example by growing their own ratios of Republican vs. 12 Democratic users they themselves follow. To truly evaluate the long-term effect of Gateway groups on the echo chamber, a further study would have to observe the same polar profiles over time as they interacted with more Gateway group members and use sentiment analysis on their Tweets at different points in time to see if they became less polarized. Using this study’s profile, that should happen. And there is wide-applicability to this idea well beyond politics on Twitter. While the methodology of the study was based in computer science, and the study examined social media, it was all through the lens of social psychology. The guiding principle behind social psychology is that human behavior is constant and so theories are made and applied to a variety of different situations. Because of that, this study has two key impacts and implications. First, it successfully defines Gateway groups on social media through its unique methodology. It establishes two conflicting ingroups. It then uses a metric (shared “likes”) to find the people that evoke positive reactions from both ingroups. Finally, it extracts profile data on these people to make a composite Gateway profile. But the second implication is crucial in the context of social media, which is only making people more and more polarized because of the echo chambers that are so prevalent on these platforms. This method of identifying a Gateway group online via shared likes can be applied to any “conflictual” echo chamber on social media. The originally developed code from this project can be adapted and used to this end. It is the first step in combating the polarity of users on social media because now researchers can build on this idea to find the Gateway groups to then insert them into polarized feeds to decrease intergroup conflict. Social media has been the scapegoat for the political polarization plaguing this country. But if the influence of the Gateway groups this study identified could be increased, then social media could become a social medium and decrease the polarity of our political discourse.

References

Bessi, A. (2016). Personality traits and echo chambers on facebook. Computers in Human Behavior,65, 319-324. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.016 Demszky, D., Garg, N., Voigt, R., Zou, J., Shapiro, J., Gentzkow, M., & Jurafsky, D. (2019).

Analyzing Polarization in Social Media: Method and Application to Tweets on 21 Mass Shootings. Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North. Dovidio, J. F., & Morris, W. N. (1975).

Effects of stress and commonality of fate on helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Psychological Behavior,31(1), 145-149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076236 Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2012). The Common Ingroup Identity Model.

Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology,2, 439-457. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n48 Gaertner, S. S., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993).

The Common Ingroup Identity Model: Recategorization and the Reduction of Intergroup Bias. European Review of Social Psychology,4(1), 1-26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000004. Goyal, S. (2005).

Strong and Weak Links. Journal of the European Economic Association, 3(2/3), 608-616. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40005003. Hornsey, M. J., & Hogg, M. A. (2000).

Subgroup Relations: A Comparison of Mutual Intergroup Differentiation and Common Ingroup Identity Models of Prejudice Reduction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,26(2), 242-256. doi:10.1177/0146167200264010 Kosinski, M., Stillwell, D., & Graepel, T. (2013).

Private traits and attributes are predictable from digital records of human behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,110(15), 5802-5805. doi:10.1073/pnas.1218772110 14 Levy, A., Saguy, T., Halperin, E., & Zomeren, M. V. (2017).

Bridges or Barriers? Conceptualization of the Role of Multiple Identity Gateway Groups in Intergroup Relations. Frontiers in Psychology,8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01097 Pettigrew, T. F., Tropp, L. R., Wagner, U., & Christ, O. (2011).

Recent advances in intergroup contact theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,(35), 271-280. Zollo, F., Novak, P. K., Vicario, M. D., Bessi, A., Mozetič, I., Scala, A., . . . Quattrociocchi, W. (2015). Emotional Dynamics in the Age of Misinformation. Plos One,10(9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138740

Abstract – Assessment of both water quality and quantity pose a great challenge to those studying the effects of anthropogenic activities on bodies of water. Eutrophication created by the increased concentration of nutrients including nitrates and phosphates has been known to contribute to the development of both toxic algal blooms, which serve as limiting factors in the ecosystems of the water, rendering it useless for consumption.1,2 Another common development is the buildup of suspended sediments (SS/TSS), contributing to the anoxic conditions characterizing environmental hypoxia.3 Because current methods for the assessment of the presence of such issues rely upon tedious and costly methods, a timely and cost-efficient method is desirable for application to the practice.4  This research relies upon analysis of the inherent optical properties of chlorophyll and sedimentation present within the bodies of water in question, achieved through analysis of the reflectance values of the red and blue bands from Landsat satellite images of five bodies of water. 5 The analysis, performed using Geographic Information System ArcMap, allows for determination of the values that attest to changes in surface area, turbidity, and eutrophication. The trends in the data hold consistency with the natural occurrences surrounding the bodies of water associated with the three parameters outlined above, supporting usage of remote sensing for qualitative and quantitative analysis of water.

Introduction

Lakes are popular hosts of environmental problems as a result of anthropogenic activities. For the majority of these lakes, causes of these problems often involve sediment loading or nutrient enrichment, also known as eutrophication.1 Eutrophication is also the cause of algal bloom in water. Both eutrophication and algal bloom are a natural phenomenon, but human activities may accelerate them, which can cause harm in terrestrial ecosystems. In fact, eutrophication and harmful algal blooms are the leading source of impairment of water quality in many lakes around the world.2 Specifically, human-derived sources due to industrialization, urbanization, or agricultural wastes due to the amount of excess nutrient that these sources then load onto their local freshwater bodies. Anthropogenic activities change the amount of Nitrogen and Phosphate - both of which are nutrients essential to algal growth - present in water. For instance, sewage, agricultural, and household discharges often contain large quantities of P minerals.3 Harmful algal blooms may cause anoxic conditions, which is the depletion of oxygen in water. Such conditions are especially dominated by cyanobacteria, which is a blue alga that produces cyanotoxins and makes lake water toxic, causing wildlife deaths and seafood poisoning in humans.4 

Traditional methods to measure water quality parameters like algal blooms involves field surveying techniques while measuring suspended solids involves the filtration technique. Unlike the other methods, studies show that satellite remote sensing is more cost-effective, economic, and ideal for acquiring spatial data from lakes with large surface areas7 like the ones that will be investigated. For the purpose of this study, there are two

other water quality parameters measured, besides the quantity factor with surface area. One is the chlorophyll, which will indicate the severity of algal bloom, and the other is total suspended solids, as a measure of water turbidity. The Inherent Optical Property (IOP) - which refers to absorption and scattering properties of underwater contents - of chlorophyll and suspended solids were used to determine algal and sediment presence. And because of the optical properties of chlorophyll and suspended solids in water, one can use commercially available optical instruments to measure their respective concentrations.7 This can be applied to satellite data because of the way in which satellite sensors collects the intensity of light reflected. And since satellites measure reflectance values in different intervals of the electromagnetic spectrum, the focus will be placed on reflectance values on certain intervals - also known as band values - in this paper. In summary, a lower reflectance value of blue band correlates to a higher concentration of sediments. As a lower reflectance value of the red band would suggest a higher presence of chlorophyll.

In this study, three lakes across the world are analyzed, and each is chosen for the significance of their impact on local livelihood. The three bodies of water are the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan, the Wular Lake in Kashmir, and Lake Taihu, or Lake Tai in China.

Methods

United States Geological Survey satellite images were to collect the data related to the measures of surface area, turbidity, and eutrophication. The satellite images were acquired from the United States Geological Survey’s Earth Explorer Database. The GIS software was utilized in order to determine the surface area and mean red and blue band values for each of the bodies of water.6 The satellite images that were selected were without any cloud coverage over the bodies of water, as the functions that were utilized in determining the presence of chlorophyll and sedimentation relied upon the properties of reflectance of light.6 The mean red band values of each image would analyze the levels of chlorophyll present in the lake, while the mean blue band values would represent the presence of Total Suspended Solids (TSS). The selected images were then downloaded with the “ LandsatLook Images with Geographic Reference” option in order to be able to have the images automatically oriented geographically upon downloading, taking advantage of the automatic georeferencing done by ArcMap. Following the creation of a mosaic image, a new shapefile was created and categorized as a polygon, to permit usage of the editing tool that allows users to outline figures. The shapefile was edited to create features known as “profiles.” The “Freeform” tool was utilized in creating the profiles over the bodies of water, as it is designed to function as a tracer. This ability permitted the creation of accurate profiles that covered the bodies of water. The profiles were created with the intention to analyze to mean values for the red and blue bands of the lakes. In order to receive the intended values from only the areas that were covered by a profile, the “Clip” tool found under the Raster Library was utilized. This tool allows users to make a copy of the areas that are underneath the created profiles. Clipping the shapefile to the mosaiced image creates the copies of the profiles, that appear as a new layer on ArcMap. ArcMap automatically computes the data values that are associated with the new layer and attaches them to the newly created layer. To calculate the surface area, the attribute tables were opened. The area is not automatically calculated, but can be computed using the software. An attribute was added to attribute file: “Surface Area, adding the values of the surface areas of the shapefiles created. For each clipped layer, the properties feature was utilized to access the statistical analysis section, locating the values listed as “mean.” The values were listed as Band 1, Band 2 , and Band 3.  Each pixel that forms an image derives its color from the values of intensity of three different bands: Red, Green, and Blue. Band 1 and Band 3 were the bands that were observed as they represent the values of the bands that attest to the degrees of turbidity and eutrophication: the conditions in question.

Data and Results

The data visualizations shown below display the conglomeration of the data that were collected using the methods outlined above. The graphs present the calculated mean red and blue band values as represented by the bars of the respective colors. The solid black line represents the surface area of the lake for that specific year.
In regards to the most drastic change in surface area, the Aral Sea suffered from the
greatest decrease in surface area during the two decade period in which the available data samples were analyzed. Below are two images that were used in the study: the first on the left is from the sample used to analyze the desired values for the year 1999. The photo on the right is the image that was analyzed to retrieve the data for the year 2017.

Discussion and Conclusion

From observing the images of the Aral Sea, there is an apparent decrease in surface area from the almost two decade period that was examined. This is greatly reflected in the rapid decrease in value of the surface area as represented on the graph. In addition, there is a trend present in the values of the red and blue bands where the values are present: the values of the red bands are significantly higher than the values for the blue band means, though this disparity does seem to decrease in the more recent years. The decrease in the red band value from the year 1999 to the 2017 reflects the presence of organisms that absorb more red light, representative of the occurrence of algal blooms that are caused by the phenomenon of eutrophication. The minor increase in blue bands may allow us to determine a decrease in the presence of total suspended solids present within the lake.

For the Wular Lake, the values for the blue bands are consistently significantly higher than the values for the red bands, slowly decreasing in recent years until meeting values similar to those of the red bands. The Wular Lake shows to have maintained a consistency with the values of the red bands as they do not display a significant gap, showing a stability of the values representing the presence of chlorophyll in the lake. There was a significant decrease in the values for the blue bands, representing an overall increase in the quantity of total suspended solids in the lake. The surface area for the lake remained rather stagnant with the exception of 2014, during which floodwaters increased the surface area of the lake. It otherwise did not exhibit any significant change during the years that were utilized in the data extracted.8

 With both of its red and blue band values observed to have an increasing trend, Lake Taihu is the only lake in which its case with pollution is gradually getting better over the course of the 15-year period. The increase in band values is more notable as the mean of the reflectance value in the blue wavelength is nearly three times at 2016 than it was 2001. This suggests a significant decrease in the presence of TSS. The increase in both band values also suggests a decrease in chlorophyll presence in the lake. The surface area of Lake Taihu has remained relatively stagnant over the 15-year period.

It is relevant here to mention that not all of these lakes were expected to have large fluctuations in all three quality as well as quantity parameters to begin with. For instance, during the lake selections phase, it is expected for lakes like the Aral Sea to show a more obvious trend in decreasing surface area for the past few years, because it is more notoriously known globally for its problem with the shrinking size. Other lakes, like Lake Tai and Wular Lake, are not expected to have as much of a decrease in surface area, though it is expected to have more problems in terms of its water quality, as they are often subject to case studies involving the extents of their harmful algal bloom or excessive sedimentation.

Looking at the red band values of these graphs, there seems to be an observable trend in all the lakes except for the Aral Sea. Which makes sense because the Aral Sea is the only lake out of all the five that is technically located in the middle of a desert in Central Asia, and it seems to be the most remote from live plants and vegetation. The rest of these lakes are most located in scenic areas where there are mountains full of trees some of them are located in a more subtropical climate. In the Wular Lake, for example, there is the most apparent trend of a decrease in red band means, which is correlated to an increase in chlorophyll concentration. This is an indicator that the algal growth in Wular Lake is certainly still an ongoing problem. Lake Tai, however, seems to be in the minority as there is an upward trend in the red band value, indicating a decrease in algal growth. This is evidently consistent with its local government’s conservation efforts to control local industrial pollutions. The blue band values seem to be fluctuating from year to year. The only cases with an obvious trend may have been present is in the case of Wular Lake. There is a relatively strong trend of decreasing blue band values, which indicates an increase in suspended sediments. This fits context as reportedly, the lake still suffers from pollutions from fertilizers and animal manure from plantations nearby. Another trend in blue band is observed in Lake Tai, as there is a slight increase in blue band values, meaning there has been a decrease amount of sediments.

References

[1] Smith, V., Tilman, G., & Nekola, J. (1999). Eutrophication:Impacts of excess nutrient inputs on freshwater, marine,andterrestrial ecosystems. ​Environmental Pollution,100(​ 1-3), 179-196. doi:10.1016/s0269-7491(99)00091-3 12     

[2] Chislock, M.F.; Doster, E.; Zitomer, R.A.; Wilson, A.E. (2013)."Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems". Nature Education Knowledge. 4 (4): 10. Retrieved 10 March 2018.                                                            

[3] Anderson, D. M., Glibert, P. M., & Burkholder, J. M. (2002). “Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: Nutrient sources, composition, and consequences.” Estuaries,25(4), 704-726. doi:10.1007/bf02804901 

[4] Bush et al. (2017). "Oxic-anoxic regime shifts mediated by feedbacks between biogeochemical processes and microbial community dynamics". nature. Bibcode:2017NatCo...8..789B. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-00912-x. 

[5] Michaud, Joy P. (1994). "Measuring Total Suspended Solids and Turbidity in lakes and streams." Archived 2010-07-30 at the Wayback Machine. A Citizen's Guide to Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams. State of Washington, Department of Ecology.                                        

[6] Alesheikh, A. A., et al. “Coastline Change Detection Using Remote Sensing”. International Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 4, no. 1, Jan. 2007, pp. 61–66., doi:10.1007/bf03325962.                                                      

[7]Babin, M., Cullen, J., Roesler, C., Donaghay, P., Doucette, G., Kahru, M., . . . Sosik, H. (2005). New Approaches and Technologies for Observing Harmful Algal Blooms. Oceanography, 18(2), 210-227. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2005.55 [8] Stony, J., & Scaramuzza, P. (n.d.). Landsat 7 Scan Line Corrector-Off Gap-Filled Product Development.

Abstract: The political sensitivity of the region in turn propagates the popularity of political interpretations for literature from Xinjiang. When reading Uyghur poetry from the likes of Tahir Hamut, Perhat Tursun, or Ghojimuhemmed Muhemmed, it is difficult to divorce ones thinking from the political reality that defines everything in Xinjiang. Literature gives a lens to culture and reality, and concerning Uyghur Misty/ Gungga/ Menglong poets there are interesting viewpoints on the political value and implications of their works. This paper will seek to outline how the political intentions of these gungga poets are interpreted. An ethno-religious reading of these authors will be called into question while an argument for a political community consciousness of issues will be put forth. This will be mostly done through an analysis of various gungga works in this paper.

Keywords: Uyghur, poetry, Gungga movement, Elegy, and linguistics

I. Introduction

The political instability of the Uyghur situation within the People’s Republic of China is something that is front page news across the globe. The resource rich and vast territory of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region is one that is crucial not only for the territorial integrity of the Chinese nation but a keystone for Chinese aspirations in the international field–especially with the New Silk Road initiative put forth by Xi Jinping in recent years. The wealth of this region is unevenly shared with dissatisfaction high among the Uyghurs of the region. The nationwide issues that spring forth from economic growth, modernization, and the control of the Communist Party are intensified in Xinjiang because of the volatile situation present. This results in the unwavering iron grip that the Chinese Communist Party exerts on the native populations of the province [1]. In the crusade to rid the region of “dangerous” elements, the Chinese Communist Party has recently sought to rid the province of “dangerous” people–the destruction of a people seems to be simply a means to an end for the pacification of Xinjiang under the Chinese Communist Party.

II. Thoughts on Poetic Interpretations

This paper will try to evaluate different interpretations of Uyghur poems, and Uyghur modern poetry in general, and the political lenses used to do so. Therefore, it is important to define “poetic interpretation” and “political significance.”

When it comes to poetic interpretation there is conflict on what is considered a “valid” assessment of aesthetics and message. While American literary critic E.D. Hirsch sees “the author's intention….is the ultimate determiner of meaning,” [2] there are viewpoints that are more pluralistic and relativistic. 20th Century German philosopher Martin Heidegger saw “the direct subjective experience of a work of art as essential to an individual's aesthetic interpretation” [2]. There is only one correct interpretation of a work and it coincides with the creator’s vision to the idea that everyone’s approach to art is different and each of those approaches are valid. These different schools of thought are important as the political nature of these misty Uyghur poems are very much up to the reader’s discretion.

This focus on the fluid nature of poetic interpretation is really emphasized here because of the fact that depending on where one lies on the spectrum, one’s take away from Modernist Uyghur poetry through a political lens really shifts. Also, this is mentioned as a disclaimer because who is right and who is wrong in their readings of poetry are really more or less up to interpretation.

Similar vagueness arises when the idea of what is “political” is considered. There is a language of vague analogies concerning the definition of political as the term seems to be all encompassing yet ever so specific and defined. Aristotle advanced the thesis that human beings are by nature political animals [3]. Going off this tangent, this paper therefore considers “political significance” to include the way people interact in the social realm. Aristotle’s viewpoint shows the tendency to fold the social into the political. Using this in modern contexts, the social spaces and community consciousness that literature creates will be considered political.

III. Usage of Sufi Allusions for the Creation of a New Identity

When it comes to the crossroads of what is “political” and the Uyghur gungga poets, Darren Byler of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Washington posits a fascinating view of a kind of pro-active modernist self-determination pursued by these avant-garde authors. Drawing from the Sufi-branch Islamic allusions and styles used by the authors Tahir Hamut and Perhat Tursun in some of their poems, Byler brings up how these poets are trying to redefine and give cultural capital to a novel modern image of Uyghur Identity [4].

Sufiism is the mystical cousin of more orthodox forms of Islam and was a school of religious thought that produced some of the most well-known minds of the Islamic World. Traditional Uyghur literature is highly intertwined with both Sufiism and the Persian language Sufiism was often communicated through [4]. The mystical nature of Sufiism allowed for more space for syncretic practices from other religions and therefore is also highly connected to folk culture in the Uyghur context, where Sufi saints form a core pillar of Uyghur folklore. Because Sufiism was centered on the individual and god, the Sufi literati across the Persianate world were relaxed concerning religious dogma and prescription–especially concerning alcohol.

Because of the moderate nature of the Sufi ideology and the high prestige it carries in Uyghur society, Byler argues that Perhat Tursun and Tahir Hamut reference the Sufi cultural legacy of Uyghur literature through appeals to Sufi figures and symbols as well as the Persian ghazal poetic form [4]. This is done in order to incorporate and render palatable poetry on the modern urban and rural Uyghur experience within the social context of Uyghur society [4].

All these modernist Sufi elements are very much present in the poem Elegy by Perhat Tursun. The repetition of the phrase “Do you know I am with you” as well as the referring back to the author in the last line are stylistic choices influenced from Persian ghazal meter [4], while the reference to the Chagatai poet Elishir Nawa’i is  direct reference to an important Sufi figure and his viewpoint.

“Your soul is the entire world.’ Hermann Hesse, Siddhartha

Among the corpses that froze in exodus over the icy

mountain pass, can you recognize me?

The brothers we asked to shelter us took our clothes.

Go by there even now and you will find our naked corpses.

When they force me to accept the massacre as love

Do you know that I am with you.

In those times when drinking wine was a graver sin than                                   

drinking blood, do you know the taste of the flour

ground in the blood-turned mill?

The wine that Elishir Nawa’i deliriously dreamed up was                             

modeled on the flavor of my blood.

In that infinitely mysterious drunkenness’s deepest levels

Do you know that I am with you” [10].

The Poem opens with a reference to Herman Hesse’s Siddhartha, openly evoking the Buddhist past of the Uyghurs before their conversion, while also highlighting the openness of the Sufi mindset. The intoxication of life is highlighted, and framed as something natural and native through the usage classical references [4]. Byler sees these messages as prescriptive pushes to promote a cosmopolitan Uyghur identity that marries the past and promotes spirituality but not necessarily religious dogma.

Modern Uyghur society had been under the influence of the Chinese Socialist Realist school of nationality for the past half century, and this had a significant impact on the literature and the ethnic mythology of the Uyghur people. The economic liberalization of the Deng years, along with the global rise of political Islam away from the Arab core of the Islamic world, has also offered another highly influential vision of Uyghur identity. This instability on what is a “Uyghur”, whether centered on ethno-nationalism within the Chinese family or reformist religiosity, is something that Byler claims the gungga poets are trying to solve by promoting a middle way with traditional a traditional Uyghur Sufi world view, between state mandated atheistic nationalism and foreign religious orthodoxy [4].

Byler puts forth the political nature of Uyghur poetry as something coherent, rooted, and yet not conservative. There is a strong argument that the gungga poets appeal to the Sufi past in order to justify the creation of a space where the Uyghurs are autonomous in their self-definition.

IV. Diversity of Uyghur Poetry and Politics

While all these poets are united in certain factors–they are more comfortable in Uyghur than Mandarin in nearly all fields, they draw heavily from the western tradition, they came of age during the years when Deng Xiaoping’s reforms were gaining momentum–all these factors are a result of the fact that they all hail from more or less the same generation. This fact brings up a reality that beyond the style of Gungga poetry, the inclusion of very contemporary subject matter, it is very hard to assign a political archetype that unites all the modernist Uyghur poets [6]. The unity of goals and motivations are assumed by Byler in his modernist Sufi readings of gungga poetry, which calls into question the wider applicability or even accuracy of his conclusions. The aligning of a literary style with politics or a worldview, might be a stretch.

In response to ideas published by Byler, Uyghur language specialist and translator Joshua Freeman of Harvard University is not convinced of the explicit political implications of Sufi allegory in gungga rhetoric–or any universal political message as a matter of fact.

Sufi imagery comes up occasionally in gungga poetry (e.g., in Perhat Tursun's Elegy), but it's not really a central theme in the genre. Some gungga poets do claim the Sufi poet Mashrab as a spiritual or poetic ancestor in a similar manner to the way Nawa’i was appealed to in Elegy, but by the same token these gungga poets would also claim poets “like Baudelaire or Pound as a poetic ancestor” [6]. There is a strong case for Freeman’s claim that “…Sufism is honestly a bit overemphasized in a lot of what has been written on Uyghur modernist poetry” [6]. It is arguable that when it comes to form, avant gardeness, and perspective, these modernist poets are as much students of Herman Hesse–who is quoted in the opening line of Elegy– or Franz Kafka as they are of Mashrab or Nawa’i–who is beckoned for in the closing line of Elegy.

While Byler reasons that there is a specific political motivation for the Sufi influences that are present in gungga poetry–the rendering of modern concepts into a form more familiar to the audience– Freeman again does not see the poets as having that focused of an agenda. Uyghur or not, it is hard to think of a catch-all answer to the question of why modernist poets sometimes use traditional forms:

“After all, "traditional" poetry is almost always among the influences of any modernist poet, and there's nothing preventing a modernist from drawing on those influences. In the case of Uyghur gungga poets in the 1980s and '90s, there was also sometimes an attempt to prove one's Uyghur bona fides by writing in traditional forms” [6].

Freeman pushes forth the idea that a Uyghur poet drawing on his roots, is not necessarily inherently a politically significant in the way Byler want it to be.

It should be of note that Byler draws his conclusions not out of thin air but from ground work in Xinjiang as an anthropologist. The political leanings that Byler highlights are very much present in Uyghur society. Freeman is not exactly negating the political message but the idea that it is gungga poetry that carries it. This becomes clearer when Freeman’s view point that there really is not any particular world view or political motivation that onw could generalize to gungga poets. A literary style does not overlap neatly with politics and worldviews:

“Much the same way that Auden was a liberal humanist, Eliot a conservative, and Pound a fascist sympathizer—yet all three were prominent anglophone modernists in the early to mid-twentieth century. Some (I'd say most) gungga poets are liberals, as that is defined in a Uyghur context, while others are religious conservatives. I'm not persuaded that gungga poets as a group are trying to put forward a new identity for Uyghurs, though of course individual poets and even groups of poets have their own ideas on identity, society, etc” [6].

While the modern Sufi vision of misty/gungga Uyghur poetry is possibly valid and fascinating, the defining of the political significance of these authors based on a supposed proactive prescriptivist world view is unsatisfactory.

V. Reality and Merit of Political Voice

The shaky territory on which the Sufi self-determinist lens of Uyghur poetry stands is obvious and this hesitancy extends to the idea of a unified drive for the creation of a new Uyghur identity. This, however, does not mean that Elegy by Tahir Hamut, or any of the other Uyghur gungga works, are not political. Going back to the socially intertwined idea of what constitutes the “political” derived from Aristotle mentioned earlier in this paper, the political lens of Uyghur poetry is still relevant and applicable–it just might not be Sufi modernist.

The political does not require poetry to be a tool for social activism–as it would be according to Byler’s Sufi analysis– but includes the creation of dialogue and a community consciousness of issues relevant to the community in question. This lens of a community consciousness of issues was used by reaserchers Rebecca A. Clotheya, Emmanuel F. Kokub, Erfan Erkina, and Husenjan Emata in an expansive survey of Uyghur language blog posts and literature published online. While this lens of analysis of Uyghur language works has not been used beyond the online world, the value of using this lens in the analysis and evaluation of political voice in Uyghur gungga literature is elucidating.

In Tahir Hamut’s Return to Kashgar the modernization and social change of his hometown is portrayed through a distinctly Uyghur point of view–a point of view tied to his memories of and membership in the community of old Kashgar. Because many of the misty poems communicate the daily lives and struggles of ordinary Uyghurs in the current landscape of Xinjiang, these poems are creating a social space of political consciousness and unity that is defined and adapted to the modern world. Even when poems are not fully explicitly set in the modern world, as in Ghojimuhemmed Muhemmed’s Chronicle of an Excecution, they provide an active critique of the society:

“The past that advances shouting Charge!

The odes sung by souls entering and leaving

to doors opening and doors closing

Distant graves approaching

Girls never seen twice and beds seen many times

Water in the blood, bread in the flesh, vows in the bone

A sword striking a head, a noose lain round a neck, bullets into the chest

And what comes before his eyes in the final breath

is a chain called homeland, an enemy called his people

And the beautiful life for which he longed    

is the flower garden he has laid waste”

The distinctly Uyghur point of view is not social activism or identity construction, but the communication of the reality of living in Uyghur society. The distance between the religious conservatism and mysticism of Uyghur society and the authors own life in this case is a vocalization of how the clash of old and new effects the normal Uyghur.

The gunnga modernist Uyghur poetry style expresses the idea of the authors and of society in general, it seems that the goal is not social activism or the overthrow of authority but the creation of a consciousness within the community of issues relevant to them [1]. Many of the gunnga poems address issues such as the Uyghur society and modernization, gentrification, urban isolation, and social shift. While these poems might not be trying to a new political Uyghur identity, they are inherently political because they are calling attention to relevant issues.

VI. Conclusion

In order for Uyghur poetry to have a political voice it is not necessary for it to have a coherent message or a political goal. The shifting of the analysis of political voice, in terms of poetry, from one focused on the supposed aimed goals to one that is focused on the sake of the voicing of experience is one that can be applied to the mists of gunnga poetry.

Misty poetry by its very nature is vague but not necessarily removed from the political. Considering the lengths the Chinese Communist Party has gone to rid the region of problematic individuals, the voicing of societal problems in poetry is a distinctly political action in Xinjiang among the Uyghurs. Misty poetry is a style that does not line up with world views and politics, and the diversity of the group makes it hard to point towards a coherent political narrative. Yet, the lack of political coherence of the style does not mean the works lack merit in political interpretation.  Gunnga poetry should not be viewed as a coherent movement of social activism, but as helping in the creation of community consciousness for relevant issues–an activity that is has become ever more dangerous over time.

References

[1] Clothey, Rebecca A., Emmanuel F. Koku, Erfan Erkin, and Husenjan Emat. "A Voice for the Voiceless: Online Social Activism in Uyghur Language Blogs and State Control of the Internet in China." Information, Communication & Society19, no. 6 (2015): 858-74. doi:10.1080/1369118x.2015.1061577.

[2] Thomson, Iain. "Heidegger's Aesthetics." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. February 04, 2010. Accessed December 9, 2018. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heidegger-aesthetics/#SymSub.

[3] Etzioni, Amitai. "What Is Political?" George Washington University.

[4] Byler, Darren. "Claiming the Mystical Self in New Modernist Uyghur Poetry." Contemporary Islam12, no. 2 (2018): 173-92. doi:10.1007/s11562-018-0413-2.

[5] Freeman, Joshua L. "Two Poems by Perhat Tursun: "Morning Feeling," "Elegy"." Academia.edu - Share Research. Accessed December 22, 2018. https://www.academia.edu/6984747/Two_Poems_by_Perhat_Tursun_Morning_Feeling_Elegy_

[6] "Freeman01@g.harvard.edu." E-mail message to author.

[7] Muhemmed, Ghojimuhemmed. "Magazine." Words Without Borders. Accessed December 22, 2018. https://www.wordswithoutborders.org/article/march-2016-new-uyghur-poetry-chronicle-of-execution-ghojimuhemmed-muhemmed.

Abstract: Gender, labor and race historians have made a strong case for space as a social construct. A Foucauldian framework of analysis of space has allowed historians to reveal histories of the subaltern, which are otherwise often ignored. Interactions in space are social relations, as individuals relate to the space around them in response to other individuals and societal norms. Even so, the materiality of space cannot be understated, as the built space impacts how those interactions are produced and unfold. The consideration of the materiality of space as an additional layer to social space, make spatial history a more effective and illuminating methodological approach.   

Keywords: space theory, societal construct, social space, gender, labor, and history

Introduction

Although historian Leif Jerram has criticized historians for overusing imagined space, stating that space is the material physicality of location, gender, labor, and race, historians have used space as a social construct to successfully unearth otherwise hidden transcripts of power relations and resistance [1]. Rather than looking at ‘imagined space’ as in competition with ‘built space,’ a layered definition of space must be adopted. As Sewell has argued, space is imagined, experienced, and built [2]. Discursive imagined space can be defined as the ways in which individuals understand their environment, while experienced space is the ‘material interactions between people and their environment’ [2]. Finally, the built environment can be defined as the physical structures that occupy spaces [2]. These overlapping layers must be examined through a social constructivist Foucauldian lens, as space is fundamentally interlinked with the production and reproduction of ‘economic, political, and cultural power,’ and the reaction of those in power and of the subaltern to that power [3].  This relationship of space with power means that ‘spatial relations are social relations’ [4]. The extent to which spatial theory has effectively been applied by labour, gender, and race relations historians must be examined to establish its use in the discipline of history.

Capitalism and Class Division

When space is considered through the socially constructivist lens, individuals who would otherwise be seen as passive become agents, since the ways in which they relate to space impacts that space. This is especially evident when labors’ relations to space are considered. Lefebvre argued that space is produced socially by the hegemonic class, asserting their dominance in society [4]. Thus capital becomes the ‘primary maker of the geography of capitalism.’ [5] Lefebvre’s theory was influenced by his Marxist approach, which became popular in economic geography in the 1970s in questioning the relationship between capital and space [5]. Lefebvre’s focus on economic geography does not give enough agency to subaltern people existing and resisting within such elite-dominated spaces. In contrast, Herod has argued that in response to capitalist space, workers construct landscapes in a way which increases their social power and diminishes the power of capital [5]. Judith Butler similarly argued that public protests not only take place in the built space, but they also “reconfigure the materiality of space.” By occupying spaces controlled by capital and those in power, the subaltern ‘performatively lay claim’ to the space and assert their right to it.

The reclaiming and coopting of space by workers in times of strikes has been explored by Percy. By comparing strikes in early twentieth century Chicago and London, Percy found that workers asserted their existence and attracted attention to their cause by claiming public space [3]. Their alternative use of public space strengthened collective action as it impacted how they related to one another, strengthening working-class consciousness and solidarity. People understand space in relation to other people, even as the physicality of the space also impacts their relationship to space. For example, there were some crucial differences in how the strikes played out in London and Chicago due to the different physical configurations of these urban spaces. In Chicago, the grid street layout allowed strikes to spread faster and made maintaining picket lines easier. In contrast, the web of streets in London meant that workers used parades and mass meetings for more effective resistance [3]. In this case study, space was produced socially as strikers constructed an alternative public sphere in which they asserted their right to be in middle-class neighborhoods and to dominate the streets. Percy demonstrates how the materiality of space impacted that production. This demonstrates the effectiveness of thinking about space predominantly as socially constructed, but also considering built space.

Gender and Conceptualization of Women

Historians of gender have also made effective arguments for space as a social construct. Traditionally, public space has been constructed as belonging to men, with women being confined to the private sphere. Women breaking this barrier by entering public spaces was often thus seen as a trespass, both by those who sought to police them, and by women themselves. For example, in Chicago in the late nineteenth century, public drinking was seen as a masculine act, with only ‘disreputable’ women drinking in public [6]. Only the rise of commercial gender segregated spaces, gave upper and middle-class women the ability the ability to drink and push the boundaries of the private sphere. Such spaces still belonged predominantly to white, middle-class women, as African American women were often barred from entering them, as were working-class women [6]. This demonstrates the extent to which capital does play in a role in space formation, as Lefebvre has argued. The rise of consumerism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries led to the creation of spaces which expanded the private sphere into the public one for women, demonstrate the power capital plays in determining spatial relations, even though such relations remain socially constructed.

Due to the conceptualization of women as belonging to the private sphere, women striking in public spaces has traditionally been treated both more severely and seriously. During the Polish Solidarity resistance strikes in Lodz in 1980, women marched with strollers and babies. These women not only claimed the physical public space, but also impacted how that space was imagined (both by them and others) by bringing objects of motherhood and the traditional private sphere into the public. As a result, the march in which they participated in was one of the most successful actions of the Solidarity Movement. The success of this march was predicated on a societal understanding of the streets as a public space in which mothers did not belong. By examining women in the Solidarity movement and their interactions with space, Kenney unearthed how women used popular understanding of public space to their advantage, reconfiguring the streets into sites of protest which shocked authorities and led to positive action.

Although Rosa Parks has been the traditional image of the American Civil Rights Movement, Kelley used space as a social construct in order to reveal an otherwise hidden transcript of resistance [7]. Kelley’s examination of space has broadened the understanding of historians about the Civil Rights Movement, leading Hall to conclude that there was a ‘Long Civil Rights Movement’ which spanned decades rather than beginning and ending in the 1960s. Kelley used police reports to analyze how public transportation in Birmingham, Alabama in the 1940s became a theatre of daily resistance [7]. Driven by white drivers and policed by them and by white passengers, the bus was a white space in which race relations were rigidly maintained. Drivers controlled who entered the supposedly public space, often passing by black passengers at stops [7]. Further, the space was hierarchical, as black passengers were forced to sit at the back of the bus or to stand. Kelley found that in response, black passengers would often speak loudly and cause a ruckus, aiming to make the white passengers, who were trapped in that space for the duration of the ride, uncomfortable [7]. Police records showed that black passengers could be arrested for any action that asserted their right to being in the space – from making noise, to sitting in the white-only seating area, to arguing with fellow white passengers or the bus driver [7]. Such resistance aligns with Butler’s theories about ‘performatively laying claim’ to space in the struggle for freedom [9]. Kelley’s analysis of the bus as a socially constructed space which reflected and reproduced the race relations present in American society deepens our understanding of those race relations, reconfiguring the struggle for Civil Rights from landmark moments like the March on Washington to the everyday spaces of black working-class resistance, like the bus.

Further, the eventual seeming acceptance of segregation in the United States by white middle-class people is also deepened by a spatial analysis predicated on social construction. Kruse found that white middle-class Americans in Atlanta in 1950s and 1960s responded to the desegregation of ‘public’ spaces by deciding they no longer wanted to participate in such spaces [8]. As a result, cities like Atlanta seemingly accepted desegregation – as a result of the reconfiguration of how public spaces were imagined. White middle-class Americans retreated to the private sphere and moved out of urban centers to the suburbs, essentially re-segregating cities. There was also an economic dimension to this conception of space, as white Americans refused to pay their tax dollars to spaces which African Americans could also use [8]. In contrast, the white working-class virulently remained opposed to desegregation because they used public spaces and did not have the economic power to leave them [8]. Desegregation thus exacerbated the divide between middle and working-class whites. Kruse’s analysis upends the narrative of the successful Civil Rights Movement leading to the sudden end of segregation and change in opinions of white Americans, demonstrating that just as the African American struggle for freedom was a constant for decades, so was the white resistance to that struggle.

Conclusion

Ultimately, gender, labor and race historians have made a strong case for space as a social construct. A Foucauldian framework of analysis of space has allowed historians to reveal histories of the subaltern, which are otherwise often ignored. Interactions in space are social relations, as individuals relate to the space around them in response to other individuals and societal norms. Even so, the materiality of space cannot be understated, as the built space impacts how those interactions are produced and unfold. The consideration of the materiality of space as an additional layer to social space, make spatial history a more effective and illuminating methodological approach. 

References

1. Jerram, Leif. “Space: A Useless Historical Category for Historical Analysis.” History and Theory 52 (2013) p. 400-419.
2.  Sewell in R. Percy, ‘Picket Lines and Parades: Labour and Urban Space in Early Twentieth-Century London and Chicago’, Urban History, 41/4 (2013), p. 457.
3. Percy, Ruth. “Picket Lines and Parades: Labour and Urban Space in Early Twentieth-Century London and Chicago.” Urban History 41 (2014): 456-477.
4.  Lefebvre, Henri. “Space: Social Product and Use Value.” In State, Space, World: Selected Essays, edited by N. Brenner and S. Elden, translated by J. W. Freiberg, 185-195. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
5. Herod, Andrew. “From a Geography of Labor to a Labor Geography: Labor’s Spatial Fix and the Geography of Capitalism.” Antipode 29 (1997): 1-31.
6. Remus, Emily A. Remus, Tippling Ladies and the Making of Consumer Culture: Gender and Public Space in Fin-de-Siècle Chicago (2014).
7. R. Kelley, “‘We are not what we seem’: Rethinking black working-class opposition in the Jim Crow South” (1993) p. 99.
8. Kruse, Kevin M. “The Politics of Race and Public Space: Desegregation, Privatization, and the Tax Revolt in America.” Journal of Urban History 31 (2005): 610-633.
9. Butler, J. 'Bodies in Alliance and the Politics of the Street'